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THE LIBRARY 
OF 


THE UNIVERSITY 
OF CALIFORNIA 


PRESENTED BY 
‘PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND 
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID 























Wighiman 


ADVICE TO SHEPHERDS — 


OWNERS OF FLOCKS, - 


CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 


TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL FRENCH OF 


M. DAUBENTON, 
BY A GENTLEMAN OF BOSTON. 


TE 


To which are added, 


EXPLANATIONS OF THE PLATES, 
AND A q 


' TABLE OF CONTENTS. | 





BOSTON, 


PRINTED BY JOSHUA BELCHER. 








PREFACE. 


Tue translation of the following work was 
made with no view to publication, but was designed | 
merely for private use, to instruct and direct several 
persons immediately connected with the translator, in 
the conduct and management of sheep. 

The author of the work, M. Daubenton, a philoso- 
pher, a man of letters, and profound naturalist, did 
not think the subject unworthy of minuté attention, 
or public notice: nor did the nation to which he be- 
longed, fail to honour, respect and reward him for this 
effort of his genius, industry, and patriotism :—he 
was placed at the head of two learned, important 
establishments; one in the college of France, for the 
promotion of natural history in all its branches ; the 
other, at the veterinary school for teaching of Rural 
Economy, at Alfort :—-He was for a long time, the ~ 
friend, companion, and assistant of the celebrated 
naturalist, M. Buffon, at his residence on the moun- 
tain of Montbard, and at Paris, who, in speaking of 
him, said, that M. Daubenton had the peculiar qualifi- 


Pa 


wo. | PREFACE. 


cation of possessing neither more nor less understand- 
ing than the subject on which he thought or wrote, 
required. . ; 

Several of the discourses, which M. Daubenton 
delivered before the royal academy of sciences, the 
royal society of medicine, the royal society of agricul- 
ture, and the national institute at Paris, on different 
subjects, which are directly or indirectly treated of in 
this work, announced not less the ability of the au- 
thor, than the success and value of his undertaking. 
The work has been translated and published in Ger- 
many, Italy, and Spain, where it passed through sev- 
eral editions: it was first published in France in the 
year 1782, and several times republished, until it was 
ordered to be printed and published at the public ex- 
pense by the national convention, in the year 1796.* 

Few subjects have been more recommended, or 
are more interesting or useful, than that which refers 


* The committee of the national convention, which reported the fol- 
lowing decree, in speaking of M. Daubenton’s treatise on sheep, declar- 
ed that the methods of improvement therein recommended had stood 
thé test of experience for twenty-five years, and that a great number of 
persons had successfully practised upon them within that time. 

* Du procés-verbal de la séance de la Convention nationale, du 1. er. 
“niyése an 3. ‘, 

** J.a Convention. nationale, oul le rapport de ses comités réunis d’in- 


_ “struction publique d’agriculture et des arts. 


** Décréte que le Traité sur les moutons, par le C.en. padbbntin, sera 
“ imprimé et tiré 4 deux mille exemplaires, au profit de auteur, et aux 
** frais de la nation, sur les fonds misa la disposition de la commission 
“ exécutive de instruction publique, qui demeure chargée de l’exécu- 
tion du présent décret.” 

Ce projet de décret est adopté. © 


PREFACE. v 


to the rearing, managing and treatment of sheep ;, it 
is intimately connected with the wants, conveniences 
and enjoyments of life, and as such, is deserving the 
attention of the philosopher, the naturalist, the in- 
genious artist, the husbandman and patriot... At a 
time when the state of foreign commerce and of the 
world seems to say to the people and government of 
the United States, husband your resources! look at 
‘home for your enjoyments ! lessen your foreign inter- 
course and relations! learn to depend less upon oth- 
ers, and more upon yourselves! to esteem, respect, 
and love one another ! to cultivate and promote your 
own industry, arts and manufactures, on which your 
individual as well as national ‘safety and happiness 
essentially depend !—at such a period, a work of this 
sort, must be rendered peculiarly interesting: it is 
practical, founded on experience, and minute obser- 
vation : written in a plain and intelligent style to suit 
the objects and pursuits for which it was designed : 
the humble title under which it appears, and the plain 
manner in which it is handled, in the form of question 
and answer, added to the apparent simplicity of some 
of the subjects on which it treats, may at first excite 
some prejudice against it; but a more minute exam- 
ination of its contents will shew it to be a work of 
great merit, much information, extensive public util- 
ity, and admirably calculated for publication at this 
time. i : 

The translator has only to apologize for the short 
time and little pains he has been able to bestow upon 


V1 PREFACE. 


the translation : in one instance, he has suppressed a 
small part of the original, and in others, taken some 
liberties, in giving a liberal translation to suit the idi- 
om of hislanguage. It has been executed in haste, 
and was intended for private and not for public use : 
he has at the instance of his friends been induced to 
permit its publication, trusting, that his motives in so 
doing, will shield him from the censure of severe crit- 
icism. 
THE TRANSLATOR. 


ADVICE TO SHEPHERDS, &c. 


CHAPTER I. 


ON THE QUALIFICATIONS OF A SHEPHERD. 


Question. W ar should be the age of a shepherd 

to take the charge of a flock of sheep ? 
_ Answer. His age is of no importance, if he is strong 
enough to carry the hurdles for the pen, and conside- 
rate enough to mind his business, instead of playing 
with his comrades. 

@. Will the business of a shepherd employ a man 
his whole time, and enable him to obtain an honest 
livelihood ? 

A. A careful and well informed shepherd, who 
has the care of a large flock, is almost continually 
employed in conducting it properly during the day, 
in folding it fer the night, in feeding it in bad weath- 
er, in keeping it-clean, in treating its diseases, &c. 
Shepherds reccive good wages and are well paid 
in countries, where sheep are maintained, that is, 
when they know their business, and will carefully 
perform. it, | 


8 ; ON THE QUALIFICATIONS 


Q. Are many qualifications necessary to become 
a good shepherd ? 

A. More things are necessary to be known in the 
business of a shepherd than in most other agricultu- 
ral employments. A good shepherd should under- 
stand the best method of folding, feeding, watering, 
and pasturing his flock, of treating its diseases, and 
improving it, as well in the breed, as in the quality 
and fineness of the wool; to drive, wash, and shear 
his flock in the best manner ; to rear and train dogs, 
and keep them in subjection, and to protect the flock 
against wolves, and other noxious animals. 

@. How can it be known that a young man will 

make a good shepherd ? 
A. A good shepherd may be expected from one 
who understands and retains what is told him as well 
as other young men in the country ; if he is careful 
and patient, and has no infirmity, which will hinder 
him from ph or standing for a length of time 
together. 

Q. Is it necessary that a shepherd should know 
how to read ? 

A. One, who understands reading, more readily 
acquires information, but it is not absolutely necessa- 
ry; he however, would be the more valuable for 
knowing how to read, write, and cypher. 

Q. With what necessaries should a shepherd be 
provided to manage his flock in the fields ? 

A. He should be well clothed, so as to continue 
the. whole day in the field, without suffering much 


OF A SHEPHERD. G 


from cold, or from being exposed for a long time in 
the rain, without being wet to the skin. He should 
have a crook, a whip, a scratcher, a knife, a lancet, a 
tin box prepared with a suitable ointment, and a scrip. 

Q. What ought the shepherd to do, if he has his 
feet, hands, and some other parts of his body frost 
bitten ? 

A. He should take the necessary precautions to 
prevent mortification in the benumbed parts, as it 
makes rapid progress : the frozen part grows first pale 
and then red, attended with great itching, it afterwards 
becomes purple and black; when it soon after detaches 
and falls. ‘To prevent mortification, it is proper to 
rub the frozen part with snow, or to cover it with rags 
wet with the coldest water; it is then rubbed with lin- 
en to restore the warmth, and at last it may be plunged 
in warm water, or fomented, but not exposed to the 
fire. 

Q. What is a crook, and for what purpose is it 
used ? 

A. The crook isa staff about six feet long, termi- 
nated on the upper end by an iron, which is in the 
form of a small spade, and on the other end by a hook 
bent back on the top; the hook may be put on the 
side of the flat iron, and then it should be bent in- 
ward. ‘The flat iron of the crook is intended to throw 
earth hear the sheep, which stray from the flock, so 
as to make them return. The hook is made for seiz- 
ing and catching them by one of the hind legs. 

Q. What is ashepherd’s scrip, and for what pur- 
pose is it used ? \ 

z 


10 ON DOGS AND WOLVES. 


A. A scrip isa pocket or knapsack, attached to 
a leather string, which the shepherd carries like a 
shoulder belt. He puts, in his scrip, his provisions 
for the day, a box of ointment to rub such sheep as 
he sees scratching themselves in the field ; a scratch- 
er to remove the scabs of the itch before applying 
the ointment; a lancet to bleed such sheep as may 
require it ; a small knife to skin, and to open such as 
may die in the field, &c. 

@. Is it necessary to have a scratcher, knife, and 
lancet in separate instruments ? 

A. A single instrument is sufficient, that is, a small 
knife, which shuts on its handle, the end of the han- 
dle being flattened and brought toan edge, makes a 
scratcher; the blade, being pointed, and sharp on 
both sides, near the point, serves as a lancet. 


4 a > ie 


CHAPTER II. 
OF DOGS AND WOLVES. 


Q. Is it necessary, that shepherds should have 
dog's for driving their flocks ? 

A. It is to be wished, that shepherds could dis- 
pense with them, because they often do much mis- 
chief; but they are necessary in countries, where the 
lands are often sown with corn, and exposed to injury: 
when sheep stray from the flock, the shepherd can 
restrain those only, which are near him, and at the 
distance, at which, he can throw lumps of earth before 


ON SHEPHERDS’ DOGS. 11 


them with his crook: dogs, therefore, assist the shep- 
herd in driving his fock, and defend it against wolves, 
when strong enough. 

Q. In what countries can a shepherd manage his 
flock without the aid of dogs ? 

A. In places, where the land is divided into large 
enclosures, there is always a great deal of ground in 
fallow, that is, not sown; a numerous flock can be 
there conducted without the aid of dogs. Sheep na- 
-turally go together ; they donot stray from the flock, 
except they observe a better pasture, than where they 
are: this allurement is commonly too far from great 
fallows, to attract them; but if the flock should be 
on one end of a fallow, near land liable to injury, the 
shepherd places himself on the side of such lands, to 
protect them. 

Q. What injury can dogs do sheep, and how can 
they be restrained ? 

A. Dogs badly disciplined, and too ardent, fly upon 
the sheep, bite and wound them, and cause abscess- 
es. They frighten the ewes with young, by hurt- 
ing them, and making them miscarry. They throw 
down the weak, and such as can hardly follow the 
flock, or fatigue and fret them, by driving them too 
fast. ‘To prevent these inconveniences, it is prop- 
er to make use of such dogs only in driving as are 
mild and good natured, and well trained to shew their 
teeth to wolves, but not to sheep. A good well-bred 
dog makes them obey without hurting them. Sheep 
are accustomed to do of themselves, what the dog 
would compel them to, by force. They withdraw 


12 ON SHEPHERDS’ DOGS. 


when he approaches, and do not advance on the side, 
‘where they see hima centinel, on the borders of a 
prohibited ground. 

Q. How do dogs serve to direct the course of a 
flock ? 

A. When a shepherd drives his flock before him, he 
can greatly hasten its speed, and that of the sheep, 
which remain behind ; but he cannot prevent it from 
going too quick, nor the sheep from running forward 
too fast, or straying to the right or left; it is neces- 
sary, he should have the aid of dogs, to place round 
the flock, to send forward, or to restrain such as go 
too fast, to bring up those which remain behind, or 
stray to the right or left. 

@. How can a shepherd make his dog perform 
these different manceuvres? 

A. He must train them from their youth, and ac- 
custom them to obey his voice. ‘The dog goes on 
all sides ; before the flock to stop it ; behind it, to 
make it go forward ; on the sides, to prevent it from 
straying: he remains at his post, or returns to the 
shepherd, according to signs given him, which he 
understands. 

Q. What is necessary to be done to train a shep- 
herd’s dog ? 

A. He must be learnt to stop, to lie down, to bark, 
to stop barking, to place himself on the side of the 
flock, to walk round it, and to seize asheep by the 
ear, at the command of the shepherd, when given > 
him by the sound of his voice, or by the motion of 
his hand, 


ON SHEPHERDS’ DOGS. BS 


Q. How is a dog taught to stop, or lie down, at 
command ? 

A. By pronouncing the word stop, a piece of bread 
or other food should be given him, which makes him 
stop, or he is stopped by force ; by repeating this ma- 
neeuvre, he is accustomed to stop, at the sound of the 
voice. To teach him to lie down, when required, it 
is necessary to caress him, when he does it of him- 
self; or after having obliged him to it, by taking him 
by the legs and pronouncing the words le down ; if 
he would rise too soon, he is chastised, to make him 
remain. When he is quiet, they give him something 
to eat, and by these means he is made to obey. 

€. How do they make a dog bark, or stop bark- 
ing, at command ? 

A. The barking of the dog is to be imitated, while 
he is shown a piece of bread, whichis given him, 
as soon as he has barked, when the word bark is re- 
peated: he is accustomed also to stop barking, when 
the world silence is pronounced : he is threatened or 
chastised, when he does not obey, and rewarded and 
caressed, when he does. 

@. At what age is it proper to train dogs for the 
use of a shepherd ? 

A. They begin training them when six months 
old, if they have been well fed, and are strong; but 
if they are weak, it is necessary to wait, until they 
are nine months old. 

@. How is a dog made to go round a flock, to pass 
on its side, to run before, to come back, or to remain 
in his place ? : 


14 ON SHEPHERDS’ DOGS. 


A. To learn a dog to go round, a stone must be 
thrown before him, and then successively from place 
to place, until he shall have gone round the flock, al- 
ways repeating the word turn, by throwing a stone 
before, and then behind him ; he is trained to run on 
the side of a flock, by pronouncing the words, on the 
sides ; they say, go, to make him go before ; return, 
to make him return; sfop, to continue in place ; other 
words may be substituted, in places where shepherds 
have another language. 

@. How is a dog learnt to seize a sheep by the 
ear to bring him back when he wanders, or to stop him 
in the middle of the flock, to wait for the shepherd ? 

A. A dog is made to go round a single sheep in 
an enclosure: the ear of the sheep is put to the 
dog’s mouth, to accustom him to seize the sheep 
thereby: or a piece of bread is tied to the ear of a 
sheep in the middle of a flock, when the dog is excited 
to aim thereat, and is thus habituated to seize the ear. 
In this manner a dog is taught to stop such sheep as 
the shepherd may shew himin the flock. Dogs may 
also. be taught to stop sheep, by seizing them by the 
leg, before or behind, or above the fetlock: but this 
practice has its inconveniencies ; the fetlock is often 
swelled by it, and the sheep made lame for some time. 

@. How does a dog make a flock obey him ? 

A. He makes the first sheep fly before him, by run- 
ning at him, and then one after the other, the whole 
flock takes the same course, if the dog continues to 
press forward: when a sheep is not ready enough to 
obey him, he approaches and threatens him by barking. 


ON SHEPHERDS’ DOGS. _ 15 


Q. When a dog is well trained, can he instruct 
another? s 

A. It requires less time and trouble to teach a 
young dog, when he has the example of one, which 
knows how to drive the flock: the young dog will 
take the same gait, but he is often deceived; he would, 
perhaps, be never well taught, if the shepherd did net 
learn him such things, as the example of the other 
dog could not make him understand. 

Q. What kind of dogs, and how many, are proper 
for the service of flocks ? 

A. All active docile dogs are good for training to 
the service ; those are called dogs of the true breed, 
whose fathers and mothers are well practised in con- 
ducting flocks; it is thought, that dogs, thus bred, are 
more easily trained, than others. In parts of the coun- 
try, where the lands are rarely exposed to be injured 
by sheep, a single dog is sufficient for an hundred 
sheep ; but when they are so exposed, and are near 
to sheep walks, which the flock often approaches, 
two, and even three and four dogs are necessary ; 
because two could not stand for the whole day, or 
for many successive days, the almost continual run- 
ning, which they are obligedsto make, to keep the 
sheep from the prohibited lands ; it would therefore be 
necessary to have otHer dogs to relieve, and to give 
them rest, when much fatigued. In countries where 
wolves are to be eovbbinden, it is necessary, that the 
dogs should be strong enough to resist, and bold 
enough to huntthem. Dogs well covered with hair, 
~ support cold and rain better than others. 


16 ON SHEPHERDS’ DOGS. 


Q. What breed of dogs is preferred, in countries 
where wolves are little to be dreaded. 

A. A breed of dogs called shepherds’ dogs, from 
being commonly used in the service of flocks; they 
are naturally active, and easily made docile: dogs of 
every other breed may be trained for the same pur- 
pose. . 

Q. What is the best breed of dogs for guarding 
sheep, where wolves are to be apprehended ? 

A. The mastiff breed is best: these dogs are 
strong and courageous; but it is necessary to give 
them collars armed with long iron points; and to in- 
cite them against the wolf, the first time they have to 
fight him, or to put them in company with other dog's 
trained to the business. 

Q. What precautions are necessary, when you have 
a badly disciplined dog, that wounds the sheep ? 

A. The long canine teeth, which enter deep into 
the flesh, should be broken off, in case he bites. 

. How ought shepherds’ dogs to be fed ? 

A. It costs but little to feed them, in the neigh- 
bourhood of large cities, where horse-meat, the seraps 

of tallow, &c. can be easily procured; for the want 
thereof, coarse bread-must be made for them: it is 
improper to give them mutton; because, if they 
are accustomed to this food,*they will acquire the 
habit of biting the sheep, for the sake of the blood. 
Mastiffs are trained, like other dogs to driving sheep. 

Q. Have not shepherds some means of driving 
their flocks when they have no dogs ? 

A. Shepherds teach some sheep of the flock, to 


ON SHEPHERDS’ DOGS. 17 


which they give particular names, to come to them, 
at their call; and in order that they may take this 
habit, they are enticed to follow them by giving 
them pieces of bread. When the-shepherd would 
make the flock pass a narrow path, or passage-way, 
on its route, or would collect his flock, he makes the 
tame sheep come to him; such as are near accom- 
pany them, others take the same course, and imme- 
diately the whole flock becomes disposed to follow 
the shepherd.. 

Q. What precautions should a shepherd take 
against wolves ? 

A. 1st. He should tie small bells to the necks of a 
certain number of sheep, the sound of which points 
out where to find the sheep, which have strayed 
into the woods, and other places out of his sight. 
When a_ wolf approaches, the sheep are com- 
monly the first to discover him; they are frighten- 
ed and agitated in a manner, to make their bells 
heard, which disclose their danger, both to the dogs 
and shepherd. ‘The little bells also call the shepherd, 
when something ‘extraordinary happens in the flock, 
whether by night or by day, which puts the sheep in 
motion.—2d. ‘The shepherd takes care that his flock 
be accompanied by dogs strong and courageous 
enough to face a wolf, to put him to flight, to pursue, 
and even to kill him.—3d. The shepherd carefully - 
observes his flock, when he drives it near woods, or — 
places frequented by wolves. ‘The same attention 
should be paid when he is near fields, where the grass _ 
or growth is high enough to conceal them; they are 


3 


* 
18 ON LODGING, LITTER, &c. 


always to be feared in foggy weather, and in the dusk 
of the evening, and above all, near hedges and bushes, 
where they keep themselves in ambush.—4th. Shep- 
herds also make fires, or at least smoke, near their 
flocks. ‘ 

~ &. What ought the shepherd to do, when wolves 
approach the flock, or have seized upon some of the 
sheep ? 

A. When the wolf appears, the shepherd collects 
his flock, and sends his dogs in pursuit of him; he 
remains near the flock, to observe if he can see other 
wolves ; halloos to the wolf, and encourages his dogs. 
But if the wolf has already seized his prey, the shep- 
herd runs after him, without, however, losing sight 
of the flock, urges the dogs to the battle, and forces 
him to abandon his prey, which often happens. 


el $ Gee 


‘CHAPTER III. 


OF THE LODGING, LITTER, AND DUNG OF SHEEP. 


Q. Is it proper to lodge sheep in enclosed stables? 

A. Enclosed stables are the worst shelter, which 
sheep can have. The vapour from their bodies, 
and from their dung, infects the air, and puts 
them in a sweat; they grow weak, and take diseases, 
in such warm and unhealthy stables ; the wool loses 
its strength, and the dung dries and burns it: when 
they go out of stables, the outward air affects them, 
when it is cold; suddenly stops their perspiration, 
and will sometimes give them severe sickness. 


ON LODGING, LITTER, &c. 19 


Q. In what manner should sheep be lodged, to 
preserve them in health, and to have both good wool 
and good dung ? 

A. A great deal of air should be given them ; they 
are better lodged in open, than in closed stables : 
and still better, under open sheds ; an open pen, with- 
out shelter, will serve for lodging them. 

Q. What is an open stable, and what produces its 
good or bad effects on sheep ? 

A. An open stable has many windows, which, as 
well as the doors, are shut by gratings: it is better than 
. a close stable, because a part of the air, which is in- 
fected with the vapour from the bodies, and dung of 
the sheep, goes off through the windows and doors ; 
whilst the fresh air enters through the same openings. 
But this change of air is made only at the height of 
the windows; the remaining air round the sheep in 
the lower part of the stable, under the windows, be- 
ing always unhealthy, although it may be less heated 
and infected, than that of the close stables. Open 
stables only diminish the evil, but are not good shel- 
ters for sheep. 

Q. What are sheds, and do they make good lodg- 
ing for sheep ? 

A. A shed is the flat of a roof, fixed against a wall, 
and supported before by posts. This lodging is bet- 
ter than stables, because it is wholly open on the side 
of the posts, through its whole length ; but it is shut 
on the side of the wall; the infected air remains 
among the sheep, particularly at the bottom of the 
wall: although these sheds are better for sheep than 


= 


20 ON LODGING, LITTER, &c. 


the open stables, they are not, however, the best lodg- 
ing. But a shed, or sheep-cot, supported on all sides 
by posts, makes the best shelter for sheep, the infected 
air goes off, and the fresh enters on all sides: the sheep 
can go out, when too warm, and enter for shelter 
- against rain: it certainly makes the best cover, as it 
is the most healthy and convenient for them ; but they 
are costly, and the expense may be avoided by a pen 
in the open air, which may be placed in a yard, or 
other domestic enclosure, by which only, it is distin- 
guished from the field pens. | 

Q. What is the least expensive manner of making 
a covered pen for folding sheep ? 

A. A covered pen may be made without walls, by 
posts from six to seven feet high; place them in a 
manner, that each may be supported by a brace, and 
arranged in two lines, at ten feet distance from each 
other ; connect them with joists and plates of the same 
length, to support a roof, the top of which should 
also be ten feet, and the rafters only seven. In the 
middle of this space is placed a double rack ; and on 
each side, is built a small shed only two feet broad, 
with the top placed against the middle of the posts, a 
foot and a half below the plate ; the joists of this shed ~ 
are two feet long, and the rafters three feet; the posts, 
which support the plate of the little shed, are only 
three feet ; supports or braces placed at distances, pro- 
portioned to the length of the building, and connected 
with the beams and posts, prevent the work from 
spreading ; a rack is placed against the posts of the 
small sheds, so that there are four ranges of racks in 


* 


ip 
ON LODGING, LITTER, &c. 21 


its breadth, which is fourteen feet. If it is covered 
with tile, timber four or five French inches square is 
sufficient ; it may be even smaller, if covered with 
shingles or straw. if 

Q. Would the breadth of fourteen feet be sufh- 
cient for lodging of sheep of the largest, or only of 
the middling size ? 

A. By allowing each sheepa foot and an half of rack, 
there will be in the fold, a space of five square feet for 
each animal, which is so much better for sheep of a 
small size, as there is no danger of the air being heat- 
ed; for it is enclosed only by hurdles, which answer 
for gates, whilst the racks on each side, which hold 
the fodder, are so placed, as to prevent the sheep from 
passing under them. ‘The air is renewed also, every 
instant, by the openings, which surround the build-. 
ing. If this shed is designed for middling sized 
sheep, or those of the large size, it would be neces- 
sary to enlarge the dimensions, or suppress the 
double rack in the middle. In the last case, there 
would be a space of ten feet square for each sheep, 
which would be sufficient for the largest: By in- 
creasing the breadth of the building three or six 
feet, this would add two or four feet to the building, 
or a foot and an half to each of the side sheds; and 
by omitting the double rack, each animal would have 
a space of six feet square, and more, which would be 
sufficient for sheep of the middling size. As to the 
length of the building, it should be proportioned to 
the number of sheep ; it may be constructed on aright 
line, of square, according to the shape of the ground. 


22 ON LODGING, LITTER, &c. 


Q. Is this building for folding sheep, to be prefer- 
red to any other ? 

A. Although the construction of this kind of shed 
may be less costly than stables, and sheds on the side 
of walls, it however requires such an expense, as to 
wish an exemption from it: when the roof is even 
covered with stubble, it is necessary that the wood 
work should be strong enough to resist high winds ; 
and in whatever manner it may be constructed, the 
charge of its maintenance will be required: all this 
expense may be avoided, by keeping the sheep, as 
has been before observed, in a pen in the open air, 
without shelter. 

Q. How are sheep able to withstand the injuries of 
the air, in severe winters, without being under cover ? 

A. The wool with which these animals are clothed, 
defends them sufficiently from the air; it has a sort of 
grease, that is called by the French and by the English ° 
_ yolk suint, which prevents the rain from penetrating 
to the flesh for a long time, so that the tufts of wool 
near the skin become neither cold nor wet, whilst 
the rest of it is loaded with water or ice, or is covered 
with frost or snow. When the sheep perceive they 
have too much water upon their wool, they throw it 
off by shaking themselves. ‘They can shake off the 
snow in the same manner ; and even should they be 
covered with it, or be buried in it fora time, they 
would not perish. 

Q. How can the parts of the body upon which 
there is no wool, resist severe cold without shelter ? 

A. The wool preserves all parts of the body, which 


ON LODGING, LITTER, &c. 23 


are covered with it, fromcold and even frost; but 
extreme cold may injure their limbs, feet, muzzles, 
and ears, if these animals did not know how to keep 
them warm. Having laid down upon the litter, they 
gather their limbs under them; by huddling many 
of them together, they shelter their head and ears 
from the cold, in the small intervals, which are be- 
tween them, and bury their muzzles in the wool. 
When the weather is attended with moist and cold 
winds, it is most painful to the sheep exposed in the 
open air; the weakest tremble and draw their limbs 
together; that is, when standing, to prevent the cold 
from reaching the groin, and the hollows under the 
fore shoulders, where there is neither hair nor wool. 
But as soon as the animal moves himself, or eats, his. 
warmth is renewed, and the trembling ceases. 

Q. What proofs are there, that sheep can live in 
the open air, the whole winter ? 

A. They have been kept in the open air without 
shelter, night and day, through the whole year, near 
the city of Montbard, in the department of La Cote 
d’or, for more than thirty years : a flock of about three 
hundred sheep have had no other cover for that time, 
than a yard enclosed by walls. The racks are fix- 
ed to the walls without any cover; the ewes yean 
there, the lambs have always remained there, and all 
the animals are there maintained, in a better state, 
than they would be in closed stables, although there 
has been in that time, many very rainy years, and 
the most extreme winters, particularly that of 1776. 
It is known, particularly in England, that sheep re- 


24 ON LODGING, LITTER, &c. 


main in the open field for the whole of the winter, 
There are instances of their being buried many 
days under the snow, and of their being withdrawn 
from it safe and well. But at the season, when the 
ewes lamb, the shepherds watch them during the 
cold nights, lest the lambs might freeze ;_ principally 
such, as come from young, feeble, and ill-fed moth- 
ers. This accident is little to be feared, where the 
lambs are put to the ewes in September. Before ex- 
posing a large flock to the open air, a trial can be 
made upon a small number, as was done at Mont- 
bard. 

Q. When flocks are lodged in the open air, what 
is done with sick, feeble, and languishing lambs 
during bad weather ? 

A. When there are sick animals, and it is seen 
that the air increases their disease, it is necessary to 
put them under cover from rain, and to shelter them 
from bad winds, in some corner of the shed, stable, 
or other building, until they become stronger, or are 
cured. 
~ @. What extent should be given to a domestic 
. fold? 7 

A. When litter is scarce, the pen should be so 
constructed, that all parts of it should have litter 
enough ; but each sheep should be allowed the space 
of six feet square. When there is plenty of litter, 
it is proper to enlarge the pen, so as to give each an- 
imal ten or twelve feet square: the places covered 
with dung, being more distant from each other, than 

in the smaller pen, the sheep dirty, and damage their 


ON LODGING, LITTER, &c. 25 


* 


wool less by rubbing against each other ; can move 
more freely ; and the ewes with young, and the new- 
ly dropt lambs, are less exposed to injury. 

Q. What situation is it best to give to a home pen, 
or fold ? | ; 

A. The best exposures are to the south, south- 
west, and south-east; because the walls of the sheep 
yard put the flock under shelter from the north, and 
north-easterly winds, which the sheep resist, if in oth- 
er positions ; but they are more oppressed with them. 
Sheep scattered over a field, like wild animals, would 
find shelter therein ; it is necessary then to place their 
pen in the most sheltered part of the yard, and ona 
descent, in order that the rain may run off. 

Q. What ought to be the height of the enclosure 
of a home pen, to secure sheep against wolves ? 

A. Walls seven feet high have prevented wolves 
from getting into a sheep pen near Montbard, where 
there have been a great many sheep and dogs, for 
more than thirty years. These walls were built of 
stones, without mortar, and had necessarily open 
joints, which would give the wolves a facility in 
climbing them; but they are terminated by small 
stones, heaped up in the shape of an ass’s back, to 
the height of eight inches; some of these stones 
would fall, if the wolf should put his foot upon them 
to get over: no derangement has been perceiv- 
ed, which might have led to suspect attempts from 
the wolves to get into the sheep yard, although their 
tracks had been seen, where they had rambled round 
the pen. 


26 ON LODGING, LITTER, &c. 


Q. In what manner, must the racks for sheep be 
made ? 

A. The bars are two feet long, and are placed at 
two and a half inches from one another, if intended 
for the small breed; they are set wider apart, if the 
breed is larger, because the muzzle is thicker; but 
the wider the bars are removed from each other, the 
more is the fodder wasted ; for sheep never pick up 
what they let fall upon the dung, in pulling it from the 
rack. Simple racks are made to be attached to walls, 
or to hurdles ; and double ones, in the form of a cra- 
dle, to be placed in the middle of the sheep yard. 

@. How should racks be placed in a sheep pen ? 

A. If the enclosure, of which it is meant to make 
a sheep fold, is small, and the flock is large, racks are 
put against all the walls, and a double rack in the 
middle :—But commonly the sheep pen is in an inner 
yard, of which it occupies only a part; and to form 
it, there is placed a range of hurdles, opposite to the 
walls, at a convenient distance, and the racks are at- 
tached to the wall. They can be also attached to 
the hurdles: in this case, there should be a greater” 
distance between the hurdles and the wall, than if 
there was but one range of racks, in order that each 
sheep should have the requisite number of square 
feet: the racks must be placed, in preference, against 
the wall, because sheep take refuge there, to find 
shelter for their feet. 

Q. Are not troughs necessary in a domestic sheep 
pen? | 
A. Troughs are put under the racks to receive 


ON LODGING, LITTER, &c. > 


the seed, and finer parts of the fodder, which fall from 
the racks, and which sheep would not eat, if mixed 
with the litter and dung. These troughs are made 
with scantling,(voliges, ) six inches deep, twelve broad 
on the top, and six on the bottom. When roots, 
grain, and other things, which would pass through 
the rack, are given, they are put into the troughs. 

Q. Is the dung of a home pen, as valuable as sta- 
ble dung ? 

A. Dung, in the open air, is not liable to be heat- 
ed, to grow white, or lose its strength, like stable 
dung ; because the fogs, snow and rains keep it moist, 
and make it a richer manure, than if it remained a 
long time under cover. 

@. Should sheep be always littered in the sheep 
yard ? 

A. As long as there is dung in the yard, litter is 
necessary to prevent the sheep from lying in it, and 
fouling their wool: but if all the litter be used, it will 
be necessary, first to remove the dung, and afterwards 
to sweep it every morning. This experiment has 
been made.at Montbard, for many years, upon a flock 
without the use of litter; but in this case, sand must 
be put upon the yard, if the ground is not solid ; anda 
quick descent should be given, for the water to run off. 

Q. Does the rain water, which washes the dung of 
a sheep pen, impoverish the dung, when it runs off ? 

A. This washing has been observed to diminish 
the strength of the dung; but it has been found to 
have as much effect upon the land, as stable dung: 
but in order to lose nothing, it is best to endeavour 


28 ON THE KNOWLEDGE 


to lead the drain from the yard, to land under culti- 
vation, or into a ditch, where manure is collected, 
to be occasionally taken away. 


ee + Seen 


CHAPTER IV. 


ON THE KNOWLEDGE AND CHOICE OF SHEEP. 


Q. Wuarare the principal differences to be ob- 
served in sheep 2 

A. Sheep differ from each other in sex, age, size, 
and in the quality of their wool and flesh. 

Q. How is their age ascertained ? 

A. By the front teeth of the under jaw ; they have 
eight, of which all appear the first year, and are called 
lambs’ teeth, and are not broad, but pointed. 

In the second year, the two middle ones fall, and 
are replaced by two new ones, which are easily dis- 
tinguished by their breadth, and which are much 
longer than the six others: during this second year, 
the ram, ewe, and wethers, have the name of year- 
lings. 

In the third year, two other pointed teeth, one on 
each side of the middle, are replaced by two large 
teeth ; so that there are four large teeth in the middle, 
and two pointed on each side. 

In the fourth year, there are six large teeth, and 

there remain only two pointed, one on each side of 
_ the range. 

In the fifth year, there are no more pointed teeth, 

being all replaced by broad teeth. The age of sheep, 


AND CHOICE OF SHEEP. 29 


then, may be certainly ascertained, the first five years, 

by the state of the eight teeth ; it is afterwards ascer- 
tained by the situation of the jaw teeth, which, as 
they are the more used and worn, the older is the an- 
imal. In short, the fore teeth fall out, or are broken, 
when sheep are seven or eight years old: there are 
sheep, which lose some of the fore teeth, at the age 
of five or six years. 

Q. How are the sheep of different countries dis- 
tinguished, when they differ from one another ? 

A They are distinguished into different breeds, or 
branches, according to their height, size, and quality 
of wool. 

Q. What difference is there in the size of sheep ; 
and how is it ascertained ? 

A. The height of sheep is measured like that of 
horses, from the ground to the top of the withers. It 
is said, there is a breed of sheep, which is only one 
foot high ; this is the smallest breed: others are three 
feet eight inches, and this is the large breed. ‘The 
middling sized, of the different species yet known, are 
about two feet four inches high, according to the 
measures, which have been given of them. But in 
France, the Flanders sheep are only two feet four 
inches in height; therefore, among the other breeds, 
the small size is from one foot, to one foot seven inch- 
es; the middling size from eighteen to twenty-two 
inches, and the large size from twenty-three to twen- 
ty-seveninches. There isa custom of measuring sheep 
from their ears to the root of the tail; but it is liable to 
vary, from different situations of the head : one of these 


80 ON THE KNOWLEDGE 


measures may be judged of by the other; for the 
height of a sheep is a third less than his length : for in- 
stance, a sheep three feet long, is only two feet high. 

Q. Whatare the principal distinctions in the wool ? 

A. The wool is white, or of a bad colour ; 

Short or long; | 
Fine or coarse ; 
Soft or harsh ; 
Strong or weak ; 
Nervous or weak. 

Q. What are bad colours in wool ? 

A. White wool only will receive lively colours in 
dying: the yellow, red, brown, blackish or black are 
used only in coarse manufactures ; or for the cloth- 
ing of country people, when of inferior quality ; but 
such wool as is fine, is used for stuffs which retain 
the natural colour, and is not sent to the dyer. 

Q. What are locks of wool, and what difference is 
there in their length ? 

A. Locks of wool are composed of many filaments, 
which touch each other atthe end. Each lock forms 
a separate tuft of wool, in the fleece. The shortest 
wool is only an inch long, the longest is more than 
fourteen inches; there is wool of all lengths, from one 
to fourteen, and even to twenty-two inches. 

Q. What difference is there, in point of coarseness, 
in the filaments of wool ? 

A. There are very fine filaments, in all kinds of 
wocl, even in the coarsest; but however coarse or 
fine wool may be, the coarsest filaments will be at 
the ends of the locks ; by examining these filaments 


AND CHOICE OF SHEEP. 3k 


in a great number of the species, different sorts of 
wool have been distinguished, which may be redue- 
ed to the five following, viz. 

Superfine wool ; 

Fine wool ; 

Middling wool ; 

Coarse wool ; 

Super-coarse wool. 

@. How «can these different sorts of wool be 
known ? | 

A. It is necessary to have samples of each kind of 
wool, to compare with that, whose quality it is de- 
signed to ascertain: to make this examination, a lock 
of wool is to be taken from the withers of the sheep, 
where the finest wool of the fleece is always to be 
found ; then separate a little the filaments from one 
another, at the end of the locks, in order to see them 
better, and place them on the side of the samples, up- 
on black stuff, to make them appear clearer, when it 
will be easily seen which samples they most resemble. 

. Is it necessary to have samples of the different 
sorts of wool, to ascertain if the wool of one sheep is 
finer than that of another ? 

A. 'To ascertain, whether the wool of a ram is finer 
than that of the ewes, with which it is proposed te 
couple him, it is necessary, to cut off the end of a lock 
of wool, taken from the withers of the ram, and to 
place its filament upon some black stuff, whereon are 
put like filaments from locks of wool, taken from the 
withers of some ewes, and it will be readily discover- 
ed, if the wool is finer er net, than that of the ram. 


$2 ON THE KNOWLEDGE 


@. How is soft wool known from harsh ? 

A. It is sufficient, to feel of a lock of wool to dis- 
cover, if it is soft and mellow, or harsh and dry, 
to the touch: or by drawing it between two of the 
fingers, and lightly rubbing its filaments, it will be 
known, if it is soft or harsh. 

Q. How is it known, whether wool is strong or 
weak ? 

A. ‘Take some filaments of wool and stretch them, 
drawing them by the two ends, with both hands: if 
they break easily, it is a proof, that the wool is weak, 
and the more they resist, the stronger is the wool. 

-Q. How is it known, whether the wool be elastic, 
nervous, or smooth? © 

A. Take a handful of wool and squeeze it: if, on 
opening the hand, it swells as much as it did before 
compressing it, it is nervy; on the contrary, if the 
wool is weak, it remains pressed down, or swells only 
a little. 

@. Whatare the good or bad qualities of wool ? 

A. That wool, which is white, fine, soft, strong, 
and elastic, is the best ; that, which has a bad colour, 
and is coarse, harsh, and weak, is of an inferior 
quality ; but that which is mixed with a great quan- 
tity of hair (jarre) is the worst. 

Q. What is this jarre or hair ? 

A. It is a fur or hair mixed with the wool, which 
is very different from it ; it is stiff and shining ; it has 
not the softness of wool, and does not take the dye, 
when manufactured. Wool of this sort is used only 
for coarse goods: the more it has of this jarre, the 


AND CHOICE OF SHEEP. ! 33 


less valuable it is: some of this jarre may be seen in 
superfine wool, and it is sometimes found as fine, as 
the wool itself. 

@. What are the signs of bad health in sheep ? 

A. Parts of the body deprived of its wool, a dull 
countenance, bad breath, pale gums, and veins, &c. 

Q. What are the proportions of body, which de- — 
signate a good ram ? 

A. It is said, that rams should be selected, which 
have a thick head, a flat nose, short and narrow nos- 
trils, a large high and round forehead, large black and 
lively eyes, large ears, and covered with wool, a 
broad chest, a lofty, thick, and long body, a broad 
back, large belly, big testicles, and a long tail. 

Q. What are the proportions, which distinguish 
good ewes ? 

A. Ewes should be selected, which have a great 
body, broad shoulders, large clear, and lively eyes, a 
thick and straight neck, a broad back, a great belly, 
long teats, neat, small, short legs, and a thick tail. 

Q. By what signs are good wethers known ? 

A. It is proper to choose such as have no horns; 
which are vigorous, hardy and well shaped; which 
have big bones; and a soft, greasy, clean, and well 
curled wool. 

Q. What choice ought to be made, to have good 
sheep ? 

A. It is necessary to choose such as have the best, 
and largest quantity of wool, for the greater profit ; 
the tallest, because they afford more wool, and more 


flesh; of the most convenient age, to produce much, 
5 


SE aL a 
RR Nua ek 


3A ON THE KNOWLEDGE 


and last along time : in short, such as are most healthy 
and best proportioned, in order to be robust and vig- 
orous. 

Q. How is the quality of the wool ascertained, on 
the body of the animal ? 

A. It is known by separating the locks of wool, in 
order to examing it quite to the roots, and by pulling 
out small tufts of it, better to ascertain the fineness 
of its filaments. | 

Q. Ought the tallest sheep to be preferred ? 

A. No; asheepofa middling size, and even small, 
is preferable to a larger, when it has better wool ; but 
when the quality of the wool is the same, the largest 
sized animal should be selected, being more profitable 
in their fleeces, and for sale to the butcher, and also 
stronger and more robust. 

Q. Is the largest breed to beg preferred in every 
country ? « 

A. No; because very fertile pastures are necessary 
for sheep of the large breed, such as that of Flanders, 


- which would not find nourishment enough, in high, 


or dry grounds, where the grass is scarce and thin ; 
such grounds agree best with the small species, 
which require less nourishment. Sheep of the large 
size should not be put upon moist grounds, because 
they are more liable to the rot, than sheep of the small 
breed, especially as there is less to lose on the small, 


- if attacked with this disease, than upon the large. 


Q. At what age is it proper, to select sheep to form 
a flock ? 
A Itis Hee y to take rams at two years old, at 


ra) 


AND CHOICE OF SHEEP. | 35 


which age, they begin to have strength enough to pro- 
duce good lambs: they continue good rams until 
eight years old; but older, they cannot be very ser- 
viceable. Ewes should be taken at two years, and 
such as have had no lambs are to be preferred: at 
five years old the ewes are still better for producing 
good lambs; that is, if they have never had them, 
or at least, if they have not had them before 18 
months or two years old. At seven-or eight years, 
they grow weak, because they want their fore teeth, 
with which to browse. Wethers are taken at two or 
three years, for the sake of their fleeces, until the age 
of seven years, and then they should be fatted for the 
butcher. 

Q. What are the signs of good health in sheep ? 

A. A lofty head, a lively and very open eye, a lean 
forehead and muzzle, moist nostrils without mucus, 
breath without bad smell, a clean red mouth, all the _ 
limbs active, the wool strongly adhering to the skin, 
which ought to be red, soft and supple, a good appe- 
tite, the flesh reddish, and principally the vein good, 
and the ham strong. 
~ Q. How is it known when the vein is sood and the 
ham strong ? 

A. Yo know the vein, the shepherd bestrides she 
sheep, and handles the head with both hands, raises 
the eye-lid with the thumb of the right hand, from 
the top of the eye, and with the thumb of the left 
hand, brings it down from the under part: he then 
examines the veins of the white of the eye; if they 
are very apparent, if he observes them to be ofa live- 


36 | PASTURING OF SHEEP. 


ly red, and the flesh at the corner of the eye, on the 

_ side of the nose, is also of a fine red colour, it isa 
sign the animal is in good health. ‘To know if the 
ham is strong, the sheep must be seized by one of 
his hind legs ; if he makes strong efforts to withdraw 
it, and you are obliged to employ much force to re- 

tain it, it is a proof, that the animal is strong and vig- 
orous. 

Q. What attention is it necessary to pay, in regard 
to the soil, when sheep are taken from one country, 
and carried to another ? 

A. They should be taken from a dry country ; as 
it is to be feared, if they are taken froma moist, marshy 
soil, they may have a disposition to the rot. 


NOTE. 
It is generally observed, that sheep, transplanted from a dry to 
a moist soil, easily take the rot ; whilst, on the contrary, one of 
the means of preventing or curing it, if it is susceptible of cure, is 
the migration of animals from moist to dry countries... Huzard. 


SN & Sper 


CHAPTER V. 


CONCERNING THE MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP IN PASTURES. 


QQ. hs HAT are the principal rules which shep- 
herds should observe, in grazing their flocks ? 

A. They may be reduced to seven. 

ist. To graze them every day, if possible. 

2d. Not to stop them too éften while grazing, ex- 
cept in closed pastures. 

3d. To prevent them from doing damage, when 
grazing on lands liable to injury. 


PASTURING OF SHEEP. 37 


4th. To avoid moist soils, and grass covered with 
dew or white frost. 

5th. To put the flock in the shade, during the 
sun’s greatest heat; and to drive it in the morning as 
much as possible, on the side lands, exposed to the 
west, and in the evening, to such as present to the 
east. 

6th. To remove the flock from grasses, which may 
prove hurtful to them. 

7th. And to drive it slowly, particularly when as- 
cending hills. 

Q. Why should sheep be made to graze every ie 2 

A. Because it is the most natural, and least costly 
manner of feeding them; and which can be but im- 
perfectly done, by giving them fodder at the rack. 
In grazing, they have’a choice of food, and take it in 
the best state ; grass is always much better for them, 
than hay or straw. Even if food could not be found 
in the field, the exercise they would receive in walk- 
ing, would give them an appetite for their fodder. 

@. Why are sheep allowed to wander, while pas- 
turing ? 

A. Because it would aiétorb, to stop them when 
grazing: it is their natural disposition, in seeking 
their food to wander from place to ae ; this exer- 
cise preserves their vigour. 

Q. Why are not sheep allowed to graze in enclos- 
ed pastures, as in open fields ? : 

A. Because sheep, when allowed to run over. a rich 
pasture, spoil more grass with their feet than they 
eat. ‘To preserve the feed, the flock should be allow- 


38 PASTURING OF SHEEP. 


ed every day, only such part of it, as it may consume. 
The flock should be fenced in, by a pen, or fold, with- 
in which, there should be grass enough for the num- 
ber of sheep; the next day the pen should be shifted, 
and so successively, until the flock shall have eaten 
the whole pasture. 

@. Why should moist soils be avoided? it is in 

these, that grass is most abundant. 
_ A. Moisture is injurious to sheep, when there is 
too much of it in the ground, on which they feed or 
run over, and in the grass, that it produces. This 
moisture, when it is cold, as it is when the dew is on it, 
produces a disease called the rot, the putrid liver, the 
disease of the liver, &c.—Moisture is also the cause 
of very dangerous colicks in, sheep :— instinct dis- 
poses them to wait of themselves, before grazing, till 
the dew or white frost be dissipated. 

Q. Why is the dew of the morning more injurious 
to sheep, than rain, or the dew of the evening ? 

A. The morning dew is commonly colder than rain 
or the evening dew: sheep feed with less appetite, 
when the grass is wet, except at times, when rain hap- 
pens after a great drought, moistens the grass, and 
makes it sweeter, and more relishing. 

Q. Why should sheep be put in the shade, and be 
made to walk in the morning towards the west, and 
in the evening towards the east? 

A. Because great heat is more detrimental to sheep, 
than great cold: their wool, which prevents the air 
from cooling them in winter, hinders it from refresh- 
ing them in summer, and increases the heat of their 


PASTURING OF SHEEP. Ce 


bodies to such a degree, as to stop them from feed- 
ing: it is, on this account, necessary to put them in 
the shade, during an ardent sun, which would heat 
them excessively, under their wool: ‘These animals 
have the brain peculiarly weak ; the rays of the sun, 
falling direct upon their heads, give them the vertigo : 
this disease is called the heat; it makes them run 
round, and presently destroys them, if it is not rem- 
edied by bleeding. It is necessary to put them un- 
der the shade of a wall or a tree, in the middle of the » 
day. In the morning they should be driven to the 
westward, and in the evening to the eastward, in or-— 
der that their heads should be shaded by their bodies ; 

which would be the case, from holding their heads 

down, while grazing. 

@ When sheep stand close together, and each of 
them bends his neck, and places his head under the 
belly of its neighbour, is it not sufficiently protected 
from the heat of the sun ? 

A. It is true, that the head of the sheep is shaded ; 
but this situation is more dangerous ¢han the heat of 
the sun; because the head is inclined, and surround- 
ed with air, charged with dust, and infected by the 
vapour from the bodies of the sheep, which heats ahd, 
prevents them from receiving fresh air. Sheep also 
conceal their heads to put their nostrils out of the way 
of flies, which endeavour to deposit theireggs in them : 
in this case, it is necessary to lead the flock to a cool 
place. 3 

_ Q. In what weather is it, that sheep should not be 
led out to graze ? 


40 PASTURING OF SHEEP. 


. 


A. Sheep cannot feed, when the earth is covered 
with snow to such a depth, as to prevent them from 
uncoveriny it with their feet. Then they should be 
driven to the field only to give them drink, and exer- 
cise. But when the wind is very high, or the rain 
very abundant, the flock should not be taken out, un- 
til the storm abates. 

@. At what o’clock ought sheep to be led to pas- 
ture ? 

A. Atsun-rise, when there is no dew or fog; when 
there is, it is proper to wait, until both are dissipated. 
—. Q. At what o’clock, and how is a flock to be put 

in the shade ? | 

A. When the heat begins to oppress it in the field ; 
when the sheep stop feeding, are agitated, or the flies 
torment them, &c. it is proper to put them in the 
shade; in a cool place well exposed to the air, where 
they may be removed from flies and chew their cud at 
ease. It would be dangerous to put too greata num- 
ber of them, intoa close stable; they might die there, 
suffocated by the heated air, and the vapour from 


their bodies. 
Q. What is ee the cud in sheep ? 2 


“A. When they feed in the field, or eat at the rack, 
they chew their food, so only, as to enable them to 
swallow it, when it falls into the paunch, which is the 
largest of the stomachs: when the animal lies down, 
after having eaten its fill, he draws what is in his stom- 
ach into his mouth, at different times, and chews it, 
afresh ; this is called chewing the cud: he afterwards 


PASTURING OF SHEEP. 4) 


swallows this food, which passes into another stom- 
ach, instead of falling into the paunch as at first. 

Q. How is it known, when a sheep is chewing the 
cud ? y 

A. He is seen to chew without receiving any food 
from without: when he has chewed a short time, it 
is observed, that something descends under the skin, 
from the throat along the neck ; it is the grass, which 
has been chewed, and which forms a ball as large as 
a walnut: a moment after, the body is seen to con- 
tract by an effort, and another ball reascends along 
the neck, quite to the throat; when the animal re- 
news his chewing: all this is repeated, until he stops 
ruminating. 

@. At what hour, is it necessary to: lead sheep out 
to graze, after having kept them in the shade, during 
the middle of the day ? 

_A. They should be led again to pasture, when the 
sun begins to fall, and when the strength of the heat 
has abated. 

Q. At what hour, is the flock brought back in the 
evening ? | 

A. The flock may be allowed to graze, until the 
end of the day, and even during some hours of the 
night, in grounds where the grass is thick, and plenty 
enough to be readily seized: but when it is wet by 
the dew of the evening, the flock must be withdrawn ; 
although many people believe, that the dew of the 
evening is not hurtful to sheep, or is less so, than that 
of the morning : it is however the same cold moisture, 

6 


42 PASTURING OF SHEEP. 


which produces nearly the same effect in the evening, 
as in the morning. 

Q. Do sheep eat noxious or hurtful herbs ? 

A. They do not of themselves eat such herbage, 
which, if put into their rack, they will often remain a 
whole day near, without touching it, although they 
may have had no other food: this proof has been 
many times given, ina sheep fold, near Montbard. 
But there are herbs, which have good qualities in 
themselves, and which sheep eat with avidity, but 
which, in certain circumstances, do them great injury. 

Q. What good herbage is there, which may be in- 
jurious to sheep ? 

A. *Trefoil (1), lucerne (2), wheat (3), rye (4), 
barley (5), mustard (6), poppy (7), and in general, 
all such herbage, as sheep eat with the most avidity, 
or which are too succulent; such as are too tender 
and watery, like the after grasses, and such as are 
found in wet furrows, or under the shade of trees; or 
full grown grasses, when full of dew, or water from 
cold rains. 3 

@. How does such herbage prove injurious to 
sheep ? 

A. When herbage of the above description is tak- 

en, in too large quantities, into the paunch, it inflates 
. it, soas to make the animal fuller than he should be, 
and gives him the: colick of the paunch; called in 

* (1) Trifolium, L, ° (2) Medicago sativa, L. , (3) Triticum hybern- 


am, L. (4) Secale cereale hybernum. (5) Hordeum'vuigare, L. (6) Si- 
napis arvensis, L. (7) Papaver Rheas, L. 


PASTURING OF SHEEP. 43 


France, Ecouffurc, enfleure des vents, &c. The sheep 
then stands erect, without eating, is in pain, and 
trembles; is short breathed, and beats at the flanks : 
if the belly is struck with the hand, it resounds with- 
out hearing the motion of water: in short, the animals 
attacked with this disease, fall, and die suffocated, and 
sometimes in great numbers. 

Q. How is the disease prevented ? 

A. Time should be given for the dew, or white 
frost to be off the ground, before the sheep be turn- 
ed out to feed: and they should not be put, in the © 
morning when hungry, into rich and succulent pas- 
tures; on the contrary, they should be confined to 
thin pastures, and afterwards led to the richest, and 
not left there long enough to take too much food ; 
they should not be allowed to drink, after eating peas, 
beans, and other farinaceous vegetables. | 

Q. What ought the shepherd to do, when he sees 
his sheep inflated with the colick of the paunch ? 

A. He ought to drive his flock, without loss of 
time, to another place, where the herbage is not hurt- 
ful, ‘and immediately assist the animals inflated. _ He 
should make them trot, until they dung, and the 
inflation abates: he must not fail to make them go 
with the wind; for if they are driven against it, they 
would. have greater difficulty in travelling, and the 
wind would contribute, with the inflation of the 
paunch, to suffocate them. They may be cured by 
making them swim in water, if it be near; as soon as 
they dung, the disease terminates. 


AA _ PASTURING OF SHEEP. 


@. Are there no other remedies for the colick of 
the paunch ? 

A. There are many others, but when the shepherd 
is in the field, with his flock, he has choice only of 
the following: he presses the belly to make the wind 
pass off; bleeds them, draws the dung from the fun- 
dament with his finger, or with a small wooden spoon, 
to make the wind pass off: he bridles the sheep by 
putting into their mouths a small branch of willow, 
or a piece of twine, which is tied behind the head, in 
such a manner, as to keep the mouth open, and in this 
state the animal jumps, struggles, and discharges the 
wind, and dung, which inflate him. 

Q. Why should a shepherd always drive his flock 
moderately, especially when ascending hills ? 

A. Because, in driving his flock too quick, espe- 
cially on ascending ground, he would run the risk of 
heating many of the sheep, to the degree of making 
them sick, and even destroying them. 

Q. How ought the shepherd to manage his flock, 
when driving it? 

A. He ought to prevent any animal from separat- 
ing from the flock, by running before, remaining be- 
hind, or straying to the right or left. 

@. How can a shepherd do all that ? 

A. By the aid of his whip, his crook, and his dogs ; 
when he makes his flock go before him, he drives 
the sheep behind, with his whip: the dog is before, 
and restrains the sheep from going forward too fast : 
the shepherd menaces those that stray to the right or 
left, to make them return to the flock, or if he has a 


PASTURING OF SHEEP. Ad 


dog behind him, he sends him after the sheep, which 
stray, to bring them back, or makes them return, by 
throwing a little dirt at them, so as never to touch 
their bodies, which is improper. —~ 

Q. How does he set the flock forward again ? 

A. He speaks to the dog, which is before, to let 
them advance, and then drives forward the hinder 
sheep; he can make them go forward, or return by 
speaking to them in different tones, to which he ac- 
customs them. 

Q. Can a shepherd conduct his flock by going 
before ? 

A. Yes, if he has at least one dog, on which he 
can depend, to prevent any part of the flock straying 
behind, or on the sides. ‘The flock follows the shep- 
herd even better than the dog, but it is necessary he 
should have regard to the sheep, behind. 

@. How does the shepherd make the flock pass a 
narrow passage, or a bad track ? 

A. The shepherd causes some animals to follow 
him, which he has accustomed to come to him at his 
call: he goes first, and calls them, in order to induce 
them to follow him ; the first, which pass, are follow- 
ed by the rest. If there should be no sheep in the 
flock, acquainted with his call, he should present a 
piece of bread to such, as are most ready to take it, 
and in this way, he can make the whole flock to fol- 
low him. 

@. How does a shepherd prevent his flock from 
doing damage to grounds sown to grain ? 

A. When the flock is near such grounds, he sends 


A6 ON THE FOOD OF SHEEP. 


a dog upon the edge of the field sown, to prevent any 
of the sheep from approaching it: ifthere is a like 
field on the other side, he sends another dog, if he 
has another ; or goes thither himself. 

~ Q. How does the shepherd manage when he has no 
dog, and has two fields to guard ? 

A, Whilst he guards one of the fields, he speaks to 
the animals, which go upon the other, to make them 
quit it; if they do not obey, he should run after them, 
and drive them out. But it is necessary that a shep- 
herd should have, at least, one dog, when he conducts 
a flock near grounds sown to grain; but a dog is not 
so necessary, where there are great fallows. 

Q. What can the shepherd do, to retain his flock 
in a place, where the feed is good ? 

A. He induces his flock to continue, if he stays 
there himself with his dogs, and plays upon some in- 
strument, such as the flageolet, the flute, the hautbois, 
or the bag-pipe, &c. Sheep are pleased with the 
sound of instruments, and feed quietly, while the. 
shepherd is playing thereon. 


S$ Gee 


CHAPTER VI. 


ON THE DIFFERENT THINGS, WHICH MAY BE USED FOR 
THE FEEDING OF SHEEP. 


Q. Wuar is the best food for sheep ? 

A. The best of all food for sheep, is the herbage 
of browsing pastures ; but all pastures are not equal- 
ly good. '‘g 





ON THE FOOD OF SHEEP. AT 


Q. On what depends the goodness of pastures ? 

A. It depends on the situation and quality of the 
soil, and upon the state and properties of the herbage. 

Q. What are the best pastures, from situation and 
quality of soil? 

A. The highest, lightest, dryest, and most inclined. 
soils, make the best pastures for sheep. 

Q. In what state should the herbage be, to make 
the best pastures ? 

A. ‘The best grasses are such, as have already ob- 
tained their growth; which approach flowering, or 
have begun to flower: herbage, too voung, has not 
been sufficiently exposed to the sun and air, to make 
good food ; it is too watery and unripe: such as have 
had their growth, bear seed, or are too old, are too 
hard, and not juicy enough. 

€. Can pastures be had out of season, and after 
frost ? 

A. There are grasses, which resist frost, and which 
are almost as fresh in the depth of winter, as in sum- 
mer: such as burnet *(1), and woad (2), of which 
winter pasture can be made. 

Q. When pasturing fails, will dry fodder make 
good food for sheep ? 

A. The best fodder makes sheep decline, ewes, 


* (1) Sanguisorba officinalis, L. (2) Isatis tinctoria, L. 

The culture of this plant will be productive of great benefit to farm- 
ers, and manufacturers; for the use of the latter, it will afford an excel- 
lent blue dye; and for the former, a valuable winter pasture, both for 
sheep and cattle, as it stands the frost, and is green all winter; it may 
be known by its indented leaves, which issue from the root; those on 
the stalk have the form of an iron arrow or dart, with flat extended pods. 


A8 ON THE FOOD OF SHEEP. 


especially with young, and suchas give milk, and al- 
so their lambs: the bad effect of dry food upon sheep 
arises from their being unaccustomed to live on such 
herbage during the favourable seasons: dry fodder 
is not so congenial to their temperament ; it heats 
them, nourishes them less, hurts ‘their growth, and 
the good qualities of the wool. 

Q. How can the bad effects of dry food be pre- 
vented ? 

A. When sheep remain days together without go- 
ing to pasture, it is necessary to give them fresh food 
once in a day, which is sufficient to prevent the bad 
effects of dry fodder. 

Q. What fresh food can be had for sheep in the 

winter season ? 

: A. * Colewort (1), running cabbage (2), high cab- 
bage (3), curly cabbage, chou frisees(4). These 
plants stand the frost, and their leaves being high, 
and not covered by the snow, may be gathered at 
times, when it covers woad and burnet. 

Q. Colewort and cabbages, being gross watery 
plants, may they not be injurious to sheep ? 

A. These plants would be injurious in the sum- 
mer season, when sheep eat fresh grass only; but in 
winter, when they have fodder morning and evening, 
colewort and cabbages given, at mid-day, cannot but 
be beneficial. 

Q. What is running cabbage, choux de bouture ? 

* (1) Brassica campestris, L. (2) Brassica perennis, L. (3) Brassica 


oleracea silvestris, L. Brassica sempervirens, J. (4) Brassica olera- 
cea cabellica, L. Brassica fimbriata, B. : 


ON THE FOOD OF SHEEP. 49 


A. It is a variety in the species of cabbage, un- 
known to botanists; it was cultivated in small gar- 
dens, in the commune of Montbard; it throws out 
lateral branches, the lowest of which bend quite to 
the earth, while the rest of the growth is directed up- 
wards:—the part, which touches the earth, takes 
root, and produces new cabbages, which are perpet- 
uated from year to year, and which form so gross a 
mass, that it is necessary to destroy a part of it.—It 
is called choux de bouture, because it is planted in 
this manner without sowing; its branches are brok- 
en off and given to sheep: it does not head, but pro- 
duces a great many leaves, when it grows in a good 
soil, well dunged.* 

Q. Is there not fresh food in winter, better than 
colewort, or cabbages, for sheep ? 

A. Carrots,} (1), parsnips (2), salsifis, or goat’s 
beard (3), chervis, or skirret (4), radishes (5), turnips 
(6), potatoes (7), topinambours, an inferior species 
of potatoes (8), are more nourishing than the leaves 
of cabbages, or colewort; scarcity, or turnip-rooted 
cabbages (9), may also be given. 


* This denomination of cabbage, choux de bouture, is uncertain: dif- 
ferent species of cabbage, even perennial, are perpetuated in the same 
way. The curly cabbage of the north, Brassica oleracea sabellica, L. 
which resists extreme cold, is one of those, which should be preferred 
for this kind of culture.....Huzard. 


+ (1) Daucus carrota, L. (6) Brassica napus, L. 
(2) FPastinaca savita, L. (7) Solanum tuberosum, 
(3) Tragopogon porrifolium, L. (8) Helianthus tuberosus, 1. 
(4) Sium sisarum, L. (9) Beta cicla altissima, L. 


| (5) Brassica rapa, L. 
£ 


50 ON THE FOOD OF SHEEP. 


@. Are there not more nourishing things than 
roots to be given to sheep in winter ? 

A. Grains, seeds, and vegetables are more nutri- 
cious than roots. : 

Q. What grains are given to sheep ? 

A. Oats (1), barley, and wheat bran, are very ben- 
eficial for them; a small handful of barley and oats, 
given every day to each sheep, is sufficient to pre- 
serve a flock from the bad effects of winter fodder. 

Q. What seeds do they give sheep ? 

A. Hay chaff, hemp seed (2), broom seed (3), a- 
corns, and cakes of hemp, turnip (4), and colewort 
seed. 

Q. What is hay chaff? 

A. It is what collects and remains at the foot of 
hay stacks, and in hay lofts, after the hay has been 
taken away. 

@. What is there beneficial in hay chaff? 

A. The seeds of many sorts of plants, which are 
nourishing, and among them such as strengthen the 
stomach, and aid digestion. 

Q. What is the effect of hemp seed ? 

A. It warms and gives strength to sheep, and ex- 
cites them to copulation. 

Q. What is done to procure and prepare broom 
seed, intended for the use of sheep ? 

A. When the broom seed is very ripe, to gather 
‘it, the branches’ are shaken over sheets of cloth, 


3 
and some handfuls of this seed is given with other 


(1) Avena sativa, L. (3) Ulex europeus, L. 
(2) Cannabis sativa, 1. (4) Napus silvestris, I. 


On mite FOOD OF SHEEP. 51 


food. Small branches of it may also be cut in June 
or J uly, and with their pods and seed, dried in the 
sun, and taken care of for the sheep in winter: sheep 
are presently accustomed to the bitter taste of this 
seed: it however may be steeped in water, or boiled 
for a moment to take off the bitterness. 

Q. What is the effect of acorns? © 

A. They are nutritious, but relaxing, and make 
sheep thirsty, when they eat many of them: it Is 
proper to give them only a small quantity, once ina 
day. 

@. What are cakes of hemp, turnip, rape, nut and 
flax seeds ? 

A. They are the husks, which remain after having 
expressed the oil from them, made into cakes, and 
used for the feeding of cattle. 

Q. What is the effect of these cakes upon sheep ? 

A. The hemp seed cakes nourish, warm and ani- 
mate sheep, but make them thirsty, and scour, if 
given in-too great quantities. The oil cakes of tur- 
nips and colewort heat but make them less thirsty. 
The nut and linseed oil-cakes nourish and fatten 
them more than others. 

Q. What vegetables are given to sheep 2? 

A. Small beans(1), vetches(2), lentils(3), peas(4), 
and haricot beans (5), if there be any to spare. 

Q. Do sheep eat lupines ? (6) 


(1) Faba minor sive equina, C. B. (4) Pisum sativum, L. 
(2) Vicia sativa, L. (5) Phaseolus vulgaris, L 
(3) Ervum lens, L. (6) Lupinus albus, L 


s 


52 ON THE FOOD OF SHEEP. 


A. Yes, after they have been steeped in water to 
take off their bitterness. 

Q. What chaff is given to sheep in the winter 
season ? 

A. Bundles of threshed straw, in which some grain 
is left, make very good food for sheep in winter. 

Q. What chaff is best for sheep ? 

. Oat chaff, because both the grain and the straw 
are more tender, and of course better, than the chaff 
of rye, barley, and mixed grain. In some countries 
the chaff of wheat and meslin, which is a mixture of 
wheat and rye, would be the best of all: but in gen- 
eral these grains are too dear, and ought to be reserv- 
ed for the food of man. 

Q. Is not chaff made from vegetables ? 

A. It is made from vetches, lentils, peas and beans, 


which are gathered before or after being ripe ; but 


that however is best, which is made from plants 


gathered before they are ripe. 


Q. What other kinds of chaff are there ?. 

_A. There is a mixture of peas and vetches, of oats 
and vetches or peas, of oats with peas, vetches, len- 
tils, lupines or fenugreek (1), and these have charac- 
teristic names in France. 

Q. What kind of leaves are given to sheep ? 

A. Such as are on branches of trees, which are cut 
in August, when the sap is in them, and before the 
leaves are dry: they let them wither a little, and then 


make them into bundles. 


(1) Trigonella fenum grecum, L. 


ON THE FOOD OF SHEEP. © 3 


~ 


Q. What are the best leaves ? 

A. The leaves of elder (1), birch (2), yoke elm (3), 
ash (4), poplar (5), willow (6), &c. They may be 
procured from almost all kinds of shrubs and trees.* 

Q. What are the best kinds of hay for sheep ? 

A. Salt marsh, because of the salt it contains: the 
hay of dry pastures, where the water never stands, 
is also very good, because it is fine, delicate and 
agreeable to cattle. Hay made before it is too ripe, 
and is only a little withered, is the most agreeable to 
sheep. 

Q. What is the worst kind of hay ? 

A. Low marshy meadows produce coarse grass, 
which is harsh and disagreeable to sheep: the herb- 
age, which grows on the sides of lakes and rivers, 
marsh rushes, reeds, &c. are still worse for hay : 
that, which is got when too ripe, or is too much made, 
or has lost its sap, affords little nourishment: the hay 
which has been wet while making, loses its colour 
and its good qualities ; it does not keep, and is subject 
to heat and rot in the hay loft. The hay, which re- 
ceives a bad smell from stables, or which has been 
wet or is mouldy, disgusts sheep. Such as is musty 
is very injurious to them, and gives them disorders 


(1) Betula alnus, L. (4) Fraxinus excelsior. I. 
(2) Betula alba, L. (5) Populi, L 
(3) Carpinus betulus, L. (6) Salices, L 


*In,countries, which grow wood, and produce but little grain, and of 
course straw, leaves are carefully collected, as soon as they fall, and are 
dried rapidly in the sun or behind an oven, and are housed for the win- 
ter: the straw is thereby saved for the large animals...Auzard. 


54 ON THE FOOD OF SHEEP. 


of the lungs ; they never eat it, but when forced to it 
through hunger. | t 

Q. Are there not some meadows better than oth- 
ers for the making of good hay ? - 

A. The best grasses for making hay for sheep are 
found: in greater proportion in high and dry meadows, 
than in low and moist ones; but there is always a 
mixture of grasses of different qualities, in both situ- 
ations. 

Q. Can hay be obtained from good grasses with- 
out a mixture with bad ? 

A. That a pasture may produce such grasses only, 
as are good for sheep, it is necessary, to plough the 
ground, and to sow such as are wanted: it is by this 
means artificial grasses are obtained. 

Q. What are the artificial grasses used for sheep ? 

A. Artificial meadow may be made with dog, or 
twitch grass (fromental)(1), sheep grass, or sheep 
. fescue grass (coquiole) (2), ray grass (3), &c. The 
name of gramineous is given to those grasses, and to 
all such as have long narrow leaves, long stalks, and 
ear out: artificial meadows are made with lucern, 
trefoil, burnet, &c. ; those grasses are sown alone, or 
mixed together at pleasure. 

Q. What are the qualities of dog or twitch grass ? 

A. It rises higher than any other meadow grass ; 
it grows in all sorts of soils, but produces more in 
good than in poor soils: it is cut early, and whether 
for feeding or hay, is excellent for sheep. 


(1) Avena elatior, L. (2) Festuca ovina, L. (3) Lolium perenne, L. 


ON THE FOOD OF SHEEP. 55 


% 


Q. What are the properties of sheep fescue erass 
(coquiole ) ? 

A. Light land agrees with this grass: it is fine and 
excellent for sheep, whether green or dry. 

Q. What are the qualities of ray grass? 

A. Ray grass grows in strong and cold grounds : 
it makes excellent food for sheep; but its stalks are 
liable to grow hard when it is not cut early. 

Q. What are the properties of lucern ? 

A. Lucern produces abundantly on rich flat 
grounds: moist soils are not suitable for it: whether 
as grass or hay, it is very nutritious; but the grass 
taken in too large quantities, or when wet, inflates the 
sheep, and the hay may destroy them by giving them 
the molten grease, or other disorders : it is therefore 
necessary to mix it with common hay, saintfoin, or 
straw. 

Q. What are the wi operivs of trefoil ? 

A. Sweet, rich, moist grounds, and such as can 


= 


be watered, are favourable to trefoil. It is very nour- - 


ishing, but is liable to the same objections, both for 
hay or grass, as lucern. - 

Q. What are the qualities of saintfoin ? 

A. Saintfoin grows on plains, hills or mountains, 
but it produces best in deep good soils: it is very 
healthy, but too nourishing, if not mixed with straw, 
when given to sheep. | Its stalks are hard, if cut late. 

Q. What are the properties of burnet grass ? 

A. Burnet grows in all sorts of soils, but it pro- 
duces best in good fresh grounds: this grass strength- 


56 ON THE FOOD OF SHEEP. 


ens sheep, is always green, makes a good winter pas- 
ture, and may be cut and given to lambs in troughs. 

Q. Do not sheep eat the bark of trees ? 

A. The bark of poplars, pines, and other trees, is 
pealed, dried and broken to give sheep in the troughs ; 
but is used only, when there is no other or better food. 

@. Cannot sheep be fed with horse chesnuts ?* 

A. Sheep not only eat them when they are cut into 
two or three parts, but they eat the outside shell also, 
although it may have hard sharp points. 

Q. What other food is there which may be given 
to sheep? © 

A. The stalks, leaves and pods of peas, beans, 
vetches, lentils, and great beans may be given them, 
after the vines have been threshed. Sheep like this 
food better, and it is more nourishing, than straw: 
the stalks of peas have less moisture than those of 
beans. 2 

Q. What is the best kind of straw ? 

A. Oat straw is the best, because it is the most 
tender: rye straw is better than wheat, because it is. 
not so hard, and there remains some grain in the 
ears: the straw of bearded bearley may be hurtful, on 
account of the beards, which stick to the wool, when 
they fall on it. Sheep eat only the ear, the ends of 
the stalk, and the leaves of the straw. ‘This food is 
not sufficient to maintain a flock in good plight; 
something more nutritious should be given with it. 

Q. What use is made of the chaff of grain? 


* #sculus Hippocastanum-. 


MANNER OF FEEDING SHEEP. 87 


A. Sheep eat the chaff of oats, wheat, and rye, but 
do not eat the chaff of barley. | 
Q. What is the chaff of flax ? 
A. It is what remains after the flax has been peel- 
ed: sheep eat this kind of straw, but it is the worst of 
all others. 


EE > Se 


CHAPTER VII. 


ON THE MANNER OF FEEDING SHEEP, AND GIVING 
THEM WATER AND SALT. 


Q. Ar what seasons is it necessary to fodder 
sheep ? 

A. When the sheep do not find feed enough in the 
pastures and enclosures, or when bad weather prevents 
them from going out; it is then necessary to give 
them fodder at the rack, or in the troughs. 

Q.,._In what month do they begin to fodder sheep ? 

A. In the departments, where the winter is severe, 
they begin in the month of October or November. 

Q. At what time of day, is it necessary to fodder 
them ? 

A. In the morning, when the white frost hinders 
the flock for some hours from going to pasture; and 
in the evening, when they return therefrom, without 
being sufficiently filled. . : 

Q. What should be done, when the snow prevents 
the flock from going out for the whole day ? 

A. Dry fodder should be given them, morning and 
evening: but it is necessary, to have fresh food giv- 

8 


58 MANNER OF FEEDING SHEEP. 


en them in the middle of the day, such as cabbage 
leaves, carrots, parsnips, skirret, radishes, turnips, — 
potatoes, topinambours, a species of potatoes, beets, 
horse chesnuts, acorns, &c. 

Q. What quantity of cabbage leaves should be 
given to a sheep at one feeding ? 

A. Itis found that a sheep of a middling size eats 
about five pounds of cabbage leaves in a day ; there- 
fore it is proper to give him a pound and an haif at 
once, when the leaves are tender, like those of the 
headed cabbage, brassica oleracea capitata, which he 
eats clean; but when they are hard, like the leaves of 
the running cabbage, chou de bouture, he leaves 
nearly a third of them in weight: to make up for this 
loss, you should give him two pounds of such leaves 
at each feeding. 

Q. Why is it necessary, to give sheep fresh food 
at least once a day ? 

A. It is because fresh grasses and roots are the 
natural food of sheep: they are accustomed to it dur- 
ing the whole of the warmer seasons ; and when it is 
altogether changed by giving them only straw, they 
are not sufficiently nourished, and they gradually 
grow thin: the shepherds say they lose tallow, that 
is, they fall away. Dry food makes them thirsty 
and drink a great deal of water, and thereby lays the 
foundation of many diseases, particularly the rot: a 
feed of fresh food: every day, prevents them from fall- 
ing away, or being too thirsty. 

Q. When you have no fresh food to give, what 
other food will prevent sheep from falling away ? 





MANNER OF FEEDING SHEEP. 59 


A. Grain, vegetables, bundles of straw, or a hand- 
ful of oats or other grain, will Eren ge the sheep from 
growing poor. 

Q. Inthe month of October and November, when 
sheep should be fed at the rack, what food is proper 
to be first given them ? 

A. It-is proper to begin with giving them such 
things as do not keep, and which would spoil, from 
not being well saved ; or such as are the least agree- 
able, as wheat and rye straw, or both mixed ; but if 
oat straw, which they like best, be first given them, 
they will revolt afterwards at eating the others. 

Q. What quantity of straw is it proper to give 
sheep ? 

A. The necessary quantity of straw for sheep de- 
pends upon the size of the animal, and on the quality 
of the straw; it is necessary to give middling sized 
sheep every day two pounds and an half of oat straw, 
if you are careful to put back into the rack what falls : 

a sheep eats every day, according to experiments 
which have been made, a little more than two pounds 
of this straw, and there is nearly half a pound left, 
that they will not eat, and which is mixed with the 
litter. There is still left some of the hardest part of 
the straw, and from which it may be calculated that 
a bundle of oat straw, weighing 50 pounds only, is 
sufficient for twenty sheep of a middling size, if that 
which falls from the rack is put back after each feed- 
ing. 

Q. What quantity of hay should be Stren to 
ehcp: Tr 





60 MANNER OF FEEDING SHEEP. 


A, The quantity of hay necessary for a sheep de- 
pends, like the quantity of straw, on the size of the an- 
imal and the quality of the hay. It is proper to give 
every day to a middling sized sheep two pounds of 
common hay, taken from a good meadow. This 
quantity is sufficient, if care is taken to put back 
what falls from the rack. Each sheep eats every day, 
according to experiments, which were made near 
Montbard, two pounds of hay, leaving three ounces : 
there will remain more or less according as the hay 
may be finer or coarser, than that which was employ- 
ed in the experiment. A bundle of hay, therefore, of 
ten pounds may be considered sufficient for five 
sheep, if what remains be replaced in the rack. 

@. In winters, when there is no snow to prevent 
sheep from going to pasture in the field, will straw 
then be sufficient for them ? | 

_ A. This food will answer until January, in coun- 
tries where the winter is severe, because there is then 
rarely good grass in the fields. ‘T’o make up for it, 
it will be proper to mix a little hay or other food with 
the straw, such as the chaff of peas, beans, vetches, 
and lentils. It has been remarked for a long time, 
. that the chaff of beans is drier than that of peas, and 
that it must be given to sheep in the evening, in moist 
and rainy weather. 

Q. At what season is fodder discontinued ? 

A. In the spring, when the sheep begin to find a 
sufficient quantity of herbage in the fields for their 
support; and when they are round and well filled, on 
ree to the fold in the evening: but as long as 


MANNER OF FEEDING SHEEP. 61 


it is found, that they have taken only a part of the 
food which is necessary for them, what is deficient 
must be supplied by fodder at the rack. 

Q. What quantity of grass does a sheep eat in a 
day ? | 

A. A sheep of a middling size will eat every day, 
according to an experiment which was made of it,’ 
eight pounds of grass, which was taken from a good 
pasture, in the drying of which, it lost three quarter 
parts of its weight, reducing the eight pounds of grass 
to two pounds of hay: therefore, a sheep of a mid- 
dling size will eat eight pounds of grass, or two 
pounds of hay, in the same space of time. But when 
they eat grass only, they drink little, or not at all ; and 
when their food is dry, they drink a great deal. 

Q. What water is best for sheep? | 

A. River water, and running streams, are the best ; 
the water of lakes and ponds runs off in part, and is 
to be preferred to the stagnant water of marshes. It 
is improper to allow sheep to drink at such places, 
except at times, when other water cannot be pro- 
cured. ‘The worst water is that, which is stagnant 
in swamps, ponds, ditches, furrows, &c. When it 
is required to give it from wells or cisterns, it is prop- 
er to expose it tothe air for some time, before giving 
it: stagnant and putrid water is very hurtful to sheep, 
and may cause their death. 

Q. What quantity of water do sheep drink ? 

A. They drink but little, when in good health : 

when a sheep is seen running to water with great ¢a.. 
gerness, it isa sign that he 1s diseased, or will soon 


62 MANNER OF FEEDING SHEEP. 


become so. Sheep drink very little, when the grass 
is most succulent: they drink more in great drought, 
great heat, or in great cold, or when they are fed on 
dry food: thus a sheep drinks from one to four 
pounds of water per day ; but there are days, when 
he will not drink, though water should be brought 
tohim. It is known by experiments, made near 
Montbard, that many sheep, fed with a mixture of | 
hay and straw, in mid-winter, have remained in a 
close stable for thirty days without drinking; and no: 
inconvenience but thirst has been observed. 

Q. How often should sheep be allowed to drink ? 

A. In regard to that, there are different practices : 
in many places they allow them to drink twice a day ; 
in others, they are watered once only ; in others, twice, 
in two, four, six, eight, ten, or fifteen days; but 
these practices change according to the season; and 
to the difference of food ; but there is no established 
rule grounded on good proofs. It is however admit- 
ted from experience, that it is not necessary to water 
sheep twice a day, because they drink more water in 
many times going thereto, than if they drank only 
once. When water is near, and the flock healthy, 
lead it gently to water once a day, but do not stop 
the flock ; the sheep which want to drink, will stop, 
while the others will pass by, without drinking. 
The less a sheep drinks, the better is his health. 

Q. What is proper to be done, if the water is so 
remote, as to weary the flock by driving them to it ? 

A. To conduct the flock thither, once in two or 
three days, is sufficient, according to the food and 


MANNER OF FEEDING SHEEP. 7 §5 


season of the year: but it is improper todelay water- - 
ing for too long a time; because they drink in one 
day almost as much as they would have done in the 
preceding days, when they went without drinking. 
This great quantity of water taken at once, does them 
more hurt than if it had been taken at different days. 
This excess causes the overflowing of water, to 
which sheep are very liable from their temperament. 

Q. When sheep eat snow, will it prove hurtful to 
them ? 

A. No, and it was proved in the following man- 
ner: sheep where shut up in a close stable, for several 
days together, without being allowed to go out; they 
were fed during the time with straw and hay, with- 
out giving them drink ; and were afterwards driven 
to a field, for several days, when it was covered with 
snow; they eat a good deal of it from being very 
thirsty, and received no injury thereby. _ 

Q. Why does dew and white frost prove injurious 
to sheep, when snow is not ? 

A. It appears that snow is not hurtful to sheep, 
because they take it only at such times as they are 
thirsty, or heated with dry food; whilst grass, filled 
with dew or white frost, makes them cold, causes in- 
digestion, and gives them a relax : sheep will refuse 
dew and white frost, but eat snew with avidity. 

€. Is it necessary to give salt to sheep ? 

A. Where sheep are fed on dry land, and are’ 
healthy, salt may be dispensed with: sheep are seen 
in good health in places, where no salt is given them. 
But in’ marshy grounds, where they are liable to the 


64 MANNER OF FEEDING SHEEP. 


rot, and other diseases, on account of the water, and 
in all places where they may be exposed thereto, salt 
will probably prevent, or cure them. 

Q. What is the effect of salt upon sheep? , 

A. Salt gives them appetite and strength; it warms, 
and makes them digest their food, prevents obstruc- 
tions, and makes them discharge superfluous water, 
which is the cause of most of their diseases. 

Q. At what time is it proper to give salt to sheep ? 

A. When they are feeble, and loathe their food ; 
which happens oftenest in foggy weather, or when it 
rains, snows, or is very cold, or they have only dry 
food. | 

Q. Is it necessary to give them salt frequently ? 

A. In some places, salt is given them every fifteen 
days; in others, every eighth day, during winter; 
but it is best to give it them, when it is seen that 
they want it. | 

Q. How much salt is given at once? 

_A. A small handful to each animal every fifteen 
days; a pound for twenty, every eight days, being 
about six drachms for each sheep. If it be given 
every day, half the quantity will be suilicient ; too 
much salt will heat and injure them. 

Q. In what manner is salt given to sheep? 

A. It is spread in the troughs, after being a little 
eround ; in some places, it is laid on flat stones in the 
field, where the flock is pastured. Salt is also scat- 
tered over the fodder, or the fodder is wet with brine, 
er with water, in which salt has been melted. 


BREEDING OF SHEEP. 65 


CHAPTER VIII. 


ON THE BREEDING OF SHEEP AND THEIR IMPROVEMENT. 


Q. What precautions should be taken to draw 
good profit from the breeding of sheep ? 

_. A. The ram should not be put to the ewes, 

until the season is most favourable for coupling, and 
best calculated for giving the lambs a good growth. 
Rams and ewes, the most proper to improve the 
breed, should be selected, and the rams should be 
separated from the ewes, when it is apprehended that 
the coupling may take place too early. 

Q. What is the best time for the coupling of sheep, 
and most suitable for the growth of the lambs ? 

A. The time is not every where the same; it de- 
pends upon the cold in winter, and on the heat in 
summer, in the different countries, where sheep are 
kept. | 
Q. What rules should be observed in different 
countries, in regard to the time of coupling, 

A. The severer the winter, the longer should the 
time of coupling be delayed. It ought not to be al- 
lowed in the northern departments (of France) until - 
September or October, that the lambs may not come 
until February or March, lest they should be expos- 
ed to extreme cold, which would retard their growth, 
from bad food, if they came earlier. On the contrary, 
in countries, where the winters are mild, and the sum- 
mers are very warm, it is proper to advance the coup- 
ling, by putting the rams to the ewes in June, or Jue , 

9 | 


66 BREEDING OF SHEEP. 


ly, for the purpose of having lambs in October or No- 
vember: nothing is to be apprehended from the win- 
ter; good food is to be found at this season, and they 
become strong enough to resist the extreme heat of 
the summer: they have much more wool at the time 
of shearing, and are much larger at the end of the 
year, than if they had come in the beginning of 
spring. | 

Q. Can rams and ewes be coupled when desired, 
so as to have lambs sooner or later in different 
countries ? i 

A. The access of the ram disposes the ewes to re- 
ceive him. They are much sooner inclined to him 
in warm, than in cold climates. Although the rams 
nay be always with the flock, lambs are seldom seen 
in the northern departments, until the month of Jan- 
uary ; for the most part, the lambs come in February. 
In the southern départments, some of them come in 
October, and they are almost all born before Feb- 
ruary. 

Q. Which of these customs (the one being bene- 

ficial in warm, and the other in cold climates,) is it 
proper to follow, in countries wheré the winter is in 
some years mild, and in others very cold ? 
- A. It would be most certain to wait, till the month 
of October before the ram be put to the ewes, be- 
cause there would be arisk of losing many lambs, if 
the winter should prove severe, and the lambs should 
come in the month of December or January. 


@. Are the rams, which have no horns, as good as . 
those which have ? , 


BREEDING OF SHEEP. 67 


. The rams without horns are to be preferred, 
nae they require less room at the rack, are less 
liable to wound others, or to be wounded themselves 
in fighting, and they do no injury to the rest. of the 
flock, or to the ewes with young. The lambs parti- 
cularly, which come of them, have smaller heads, than 
those of the horned rams, and are less painful to the 
ewes, while yeaning; but in places, where sheep 
are enclosed within hedges, those with horns are to 
be preferred, because they prevent them from going 
through them, thereby losing their wool. 

Q. At what age are rams in condition to get good 
lambs ? 

A. From eighteen nblotien to eight years of age: at 
three years old, they are the most vigorous. When 
rams from 18 months to two years are to be put to 
ewes, the strongest should be chosen: at six months, 
they are able to smear the ewes, but not having ac- 
quired their full growth, they will produce only feeble 
lambs ; after eight years they are too old for service. 

Q. How many ewes should be given to one ram? 

A. It-is proper to put more ewes to a young vigo- 
rous ram, than to such as are old and feeble : it is said, 
that a good ram can serve fifty or sixty ewes ; but to 
preserve a ram without weakening him, and to have 
strong lambs, which do not degenerate from the breed 
of the ram, it is proper to put him to ~— fifteen or 
twenty ewes.* 


* This number is too sraall: there is an instance of a ram, which was 
by chance shut up with sixty ewes, and he impregnated all of them in 
one night ; therefore taking a mean number, one ram may serve at least 
thirty er forty ewes.....Huzard. : 


68 BREEDING OF SHEEP. 


Q. What precaution should be taken, that the ram 
may give no bad qualities to the lambs, which he be- 
gets ? 

A. It is proper to use a rams only, as are well 
shaped, healthy, and well covered with wool. 

Q. At what age should ewes be put.to the ram ? 

. A. From the age of eighteen months, to eight 
years: at six months, they give signs of heat, and will 
take the male; but they are too young to produce 
good lambs, and after eight years are too old: good 
lambs have been had, from ewes of a more advanced 
age,* but they are in their prime at four years olds 

Q. What are the defects and bad qualities, which 
ewes may communicate to their lambs ? 

A. Their size, wool, and many diseases : the lamb 
partakes of the bad qualities of the ewe and ram from 
which he comes: it is proper to choose white ani- 
mals for coupling, or such only, as have their faces 
and feet marked. 

~&. What is proper to be done to increase the size 
of sheep ? 

A. It is proper to choose the largest ewes of the 
flock, and to put them to rams still larger than them- 
selves : from the first generation, the lambs will be 
larger than their dams, and‘ almost as large as their 
sires, and sometimes larger. 

Q. What evidence is there of this increase in the 
size of sheep ? 


* There were ewes at Rambouillet, which were brought from Spain 
in the year 1786, then two years old, and which produced good lambs in 
the year 1800, when they were at least 16 years old....Huzard. 


BREEDING OF SHEEP. ; 69 


A. A ram of twenty-eight inches in height was 
putto some ewes of twenty inches, and the lambs 
which were produced were twenty-seven inches high. 

@. How can the wool be improved? 

A. There are two ways of improving wool, to make 
it longer and finer. 

@. What should be done to make it chiar 

A. The ewes in the flock, which have the longest 
wool, should be coupled with rams, which have still 
longer wool; the wool of the lambs, which they will 
produce, will become longer than the wool of the 
Alams, and sometimes longer than that of the sires. 

Q. What evidence is there of this increase, in the 
length of the wool ? 

A. Rams having wool of six inches in length were 
put to ewes having wool three inches; the animals 
produced from this admixture, had it quite five and 
an half inches long: it would be difficult to credit 
this great improvement, if the wool had not been 
seen and measured. 

@. How can wool be improved in fineness ? 

A. Ewes, which have the finest wool of the fleck, 
intended to be improved, should be selected and put 
to rams, which have wool stillfiner. The produce of 
the two will have finer wool than the dams ; and some- 
times as fine, and even finer than the rams. 

Q. What proof is there of this improvement in the 
fineness of the wool ? | 

A. Rams having fine wool were put to ewes hav- 
ing coarse, and the wool produced from the lambs 
obtained a quality between the two. Ewes with 


70 _ BREEDING OF SHEEP. 


middling wool being coupled with rams having su- 
perfine, their lambs had fine wool. Sometimes the 
wool of the lambs has exceeded in fineness that of 
the rams, which begot them. 3 

Q. What breed of sheep has been impnaved by 
_ these means, and to what degree of fineness ? 

A. The English breed, and that of the northern 
departments, of the Cote d’or, of the eastern Pyre- 
-nees, and of the kingdom of Morocco, have been 
made to produce superfine wool, by rams from the 
eastern Pyrenees, without the aid of Spanish rams. 

@. Can proof be given of so important an im- 
provement ? 

A. There are convincing proofs of these facts, in a 
flock of three hundred sheep of different breeds, which 
produce superfine wool, although they originally came 
from ewes with coarse wool, and for the most part 
hairy (jarreuse ;) these ewes were coupled with rams 
from the department of the eastern Pyrenees. ‘The 
flock thus improved is in the department of la Cote 
d’or, near the city of Montbard. 

. Had the improved lambs been better fed, or 
taken care of, than their sires ? 

A. They had not been better fed, but had been 
kept in the open air, night and day, during the whole 
year, instead of being shut up in stables. 

- Q. How can the quantity of wool be increased ? 

A. To increase the weight of the fleeces, it is ne- 
cessary to have rams, which produce more wool than 
those of the flock, whose fleeces it is meant to im- 


BREEDING OF SHEEP. ee 


prove; the fleeces of the lambs, will i in such case, be 
in proportion to those of their sires. 

Q. What proofs are there of this increase in the 
quantity of wool ? 

A. The following experiments were made in a 
canton, where the pastures are poor; and the weth- 
ers and rams afforded fleeces weighing only a pound, 
or a pound and a quarter, and those of the ewes only 
three quarters of a pound of wool, washed on the 
sheep’s back before shearing. These ewes were put 
to rams, which produced about three pounds of wool ; 
their lambs the second year had from two pounds to 
two pounds and an half of wool. 

A ram from Flanders, whose fleece weighed five 
pounds ten ounces, having been put to a ewe from the 
department of the eastern Pyrenees, which had on- 
ly two pounds, two ounces of wool, produced a male 
lamb, which in the third year had five pounds four | 
ounces and six drachms of wool: this ram had been 
well fed ; for it cannot be expected, that sheep can 
have heavy fleeces with poor pasture, and little fodder. 

Q. Can ewes, having hairy wool (jarreuse) be made 
to produce lambs, which have no jarre.*_ 

A. Ifa ewe in a middling degree hairy (jarreuse) 
be coupled with a ram having no jarre, their lambs 
will have no jarre: if the ewes have a great deal of 
jarre, the lambs will also have some of it, but less in 


* The French use the word jarre to designate a coarse hairy wool, 
which has the singular property of not receiving the dye when manufac- 
tured : it is considered the worst wool in France, and is used only im 
the coarsest manufactures. 


72 BREEDING OF SHEEP. 


quantity : if this lamb, being a female, be coupled 
afterwards with a ram without jarre, their lamb will 
have none of it. Many experiments of this improve- 
ment have been made, by coupling hairy ewes with 
rams having no jarre.* 

Q. Can the melioration of a flock of sheep be 
sooner or more profitably made, by purchasing high 
priced rams ? | | 

A. OF all the methods of meliorating a flock of 
sheep, the most perfect rams improve one the fastest, 
and afford the most profit. Money should not be spar- 
ed to obtain rams from a distance : an improvement in 
the size of the sheep, and in the quantity and quality 
‘of the wool, may be anticipated from the lambs, 
which will be produced. It is not surprising, that a 
ram whose wool was twenty-three inches long, should 
have sold in England, for twelve hundred francs, fifty 
pounds sterling: the improvement of flocks of sheep 
ean never be obtained, where good rams do not bear 
a great price; it would be proper at least, that they 
should sell dearer than the finest wethers, for the 
purpose of inducing the owners of flocks to preserve 
their best lambs to become rams. -If earnest money 
were given to the owners of sheep, to prevent them 
from cutting, or selling such lambs as should be 
reserved; it would be still better to purchase them 


*@ When the fine wooled sheep arrived at Rambouillet in 1786, a great 
part of them had jarre : it however disappeared in the after generation : 
hose which have just arrived, and were lately purchased in Spain, by 
Gilbert, have jarre, but it will disappear as in the first instance. This 
_ fact proves, that without crossing, the jarre may be destroyed by care. 


* 


BREEDING OF SHEEP. oe, 


for the purpose of feeding them, until a proper age 
for use, it would be proper also, for the communes to 
put good rams to their flocks. 

Q. Why are good rams more necessary than eooll 
ewes, for the improvement of a flock. 

A. Aram produces every year, at least, fifteen or 
twenty lambs,* whilst a ewe has commonly but one ; 
fifteen or twenty times more ewes would be required 
to procure the same improvement. 

@. Cana breed of sheep be improved without in- 
curring expense ? 

A. Expense may be avoided, but much time 1S 
required : melioration is made by degrees : if the best 
male lambs are selected every year, to become rams, 
when of a suitable age, and the best female lambs 

chosen to be put to the rams so selected, each gen- 
eration will be better than. the preceding, but the 
progress will be slow. 

Q. Are there other means of sooner improving a 
flock of sheep, and attended with little expense ? 

A. A ram from a better breed, than that intended 
to be improved, should be purchased ; suchrams may 
be found in the neighbourhood,and cannot cost much: 
if it is required to go further for them, it is still not 
expensive ; much time is thereby saved, because the 
rams having qualities superior to the best ewes, se- 
lected from the breed intended to be improved, and 
coupled with them, ‘nan lambs of a better quall- 


* The increase from rams, as ) above stated, was at least double the ~ 
above estimate...Huzard. 


10 


14 BREEDING OF SHEEP. 


ty than if they had come from rams of the same breed 
with their dams. 

@. Can the melioration of a breed. of sheep be 
sooner procured at a greater expense ? 

' A. If rams of the best breed in France, or foreign 
countries, could be procured, the expense would be 
greater, but the improvement more rapid. The rams 
having better qualities, than those, which might be 
had at less expense, nearer home, will sooner perfect 
the breed, with which they may be coupled. 

Q. Are the lambs, which come from ewes of an in- 
ferior quality to the rams, always superior to their 
dams ? 

A. They are not equally so: there is much differ- — 
ence in the degree of improvement, and this differs 
ence depends on the health of the rams, ewes, and 
even on that of the lambs, on the quantity and quality 
of their food, on the season, from being more or less 
cold or rainy, and on other circumstances, which may 
cause the lambs to degenerate, instead of improving ; 
but the improvement does not fail, unless impeded 
‘by unfortunate, events. | | 

.Q. What is proper to be dishes: to continue the 
improvement of a breed of sheep, from one genera- 
tion to another ? 

A, Select the best ewes from the first generation, 
‘and couple them with the ram, which has produced 
them; if a more perfect ram can be had, he ought to 
he preferred. Conduct in the same manner with ev- 
ery successive generation. The same ram should 
not be used for more than two or three generations, 


BREEDING OF SHEEP. 15 


f 


nor changed for anedtie# unless he may be as om 
or better ? 

: @. ‘When a breed of sheep is silico to the ex- 
tent wished for, how can it be preserved in the same. 
state ? 

A. The flock should be well lodged and fed, and 
its diseases seasonably cured or prevented, if possi- 
ble ; proper care should be taken to couple the best 
rams and ewes, as well for’ size, quantity and quality 
of wool, as for good health ; for nothing beneficial can 
be expected from ewes, and especially from rams, 
which are feeble, and in bad health. | 

Q. When a breed of sheep has been improved in 
one district or country, how can it be extended to 
others ? 3 

A. Rams and even ewes of the improved breed 
should be procured to establish them in the different 
districts. . 

Q. Is it necessary, that ewes as well as rams should 
be obtained, to propagate an improved breed, from a 
distance, or from a foreign country ? 

A. The expense would be greater than if the rams 
only were procured : it is true, time might be gained 
thereby, and the perfect breed would be had at ‘the 
first generation ; but there would be more hazard of 
the success of the undertaking, than if the rams were 
procured without the ewes ; because it ‘iS essential that 
the rams, and even the ewes and their lambs, should 
find nothing hurtful in the situation, to which they are 
conducted : on the contrary, by coupling foreign rams 
with the ewes of the place, there is no risk butof the 


. 


96 BREEDING OF SHEEP: 


rams ; the lambs which would come from this admix- 
ture, would have their constitutions half formed to 
the country, through their dams, which belong to it. 

Q. At what age, and in what season ought sheep — 
to journey ? 

A. The best age for driving them a journey, or to 
a distance, is at a year old, when they have nearly ob- 
tained their growth; the best season is, when it is 
neither too hot nor too cold, and the earth is neither » 
frozen nor wet: there should be grass on the road to 
serve them for pasture, and the ewes should not be 
with young, nor suckle their lambs. These consid- 
erations premised, the most favourable weather should 
be taken, having regard to the distance, and the coun- 
try through which the sheep are to pass. 

Q. How ought sheep to be managed in going from 
one part of the country to another ? "eo 

A. They should be driven slowly, without sisikiie 
or fatiguing them.; should be allowed to rest in the 
middle of the day when it is hot, and to feed while 
travelling : when these animals have reached their 
destination to be put up for the night, fodders should 
be given them, if their bellies are not sufficiently full, 
and oats should be given to strengthen them: they 
can travel four, five, or six middling leagues every 
day; butif they appear fatigued, time Bboy be giv- 
en to rest them. 

Q. How are sheep made. to eat fodder, when there 
-areno racks ? } 

A. Several bundles of hay should be tied together 
by a running knot, and hung up at the height of the 


BREEDING OF SHEEP. V7 


sheep: they will surround the fodder, and.as the hay 
is consumed, the knot tightens, and prevents the re- 
mainder from falling. 

@. What precautions should be taken, when sheep 
are first introduced into a country new to them? 

A. If they do not come far, little precaution is ne- 
cessary ; but if they are taken from a distant country, 
information should be had in regard to the manner of 
feeding and conducting them to pasture, and care 
should be taken to manage and feed them in the same : 
way. If some change is necessary, it should be 
done gradually, and with prudence. 


NOTE. 


It may be observed by the rules contained in this chapter, that 
the custom of leaving the rams in the flock is very prevalent, and | 
Daubenton contends against separating them from it, even when 
it may be apprehended, that the coupling will take place too ear- 
ly ; it must be said, that this custom, however prevalent, is a bad 
one. The rams weary the ewes both before they grow warm, and 
while they are with lamb, and often make them lustful. There 
are always more barren ewes and miscarriages in the flock, where 
the rams continue with the ewes the whole year, than where they 
donot. The ramsthemselves are much more fatigued, and grow 
old faster, than when kept apart. This management is indispen- 
sable, especially in a flock of fine wooled sheep, or in one intend- 
ed to be improved, and the practice has now become general. If 
it requires an additional expense, the owner of the flock is indem- 
nified by the longer continuance of the animals; and by the annu- 
al increase of the number of lambs....Auzard. 


78 ON EWES. 


- CHAPTER IX. 


CONCERNING EWES. 


Q. Wuar precautions should be taken in coup- 
ling sheep ? 

A. A good choice of rams and ewes should 
be made to improve the breed, or to prevent it from 
degenerating. It is, above all, necessary to select 
such animals, as are in good health, and of a proper 
age. Ifthe ewe should be found to refuse the ram, 
some handfuls of oats or hemp seed should be given 
them ; or a couple of handfuls of bran, mixed with a 
half an ounce of salt, and an onion (1); ortwocloves 
of garlic (2), cut into small pieces, mixed with two 
handfuls of bran, and half an ounce or two pinches of 
salt. ‘The rams should have the same provender 
given them, when they are not sufficiently ardent. 

@. What care should be taken of the ewes after 
coupling ? 

A. It is necessary to keep them from every thing, 
which might kill the lamb before its birth, or make 
them miscarry. Bad food, fatigue, jumping, com- 
pression of the belly ; too great heat, or fright, may 
cause these accidents, which are but too frequent. 

. @. How can the accidents, which cause miscar- 
riage, be prevented 2 

A. The fear, which a clap of thifrider, or the ap- 
proach of a wolf excites, cannot be prevented ; but 


(1) Allium cepa, L. (2) Allium sativum, L. 


ON EWES. | 79 


dogs, rams, or other animals, may be hindered from 
frightening the ewes ; which should be well fed, driv 
en gently, and not put in a situation to jump across 
ditches, rocks, hedges, &c. or to crowd one on an- 
other, or to strike against gates, walls, stones, or trees. 

Q. How long a time do ewes go before lambing ? 

A. About one hundred and fifty days, or nearly 
five months. 

Q. How is it known, when a ewe is about casting 
her lamb ? : 

A. It is known by the bag filling with milk, and 
by the swelling of the the natural parts ; and the dis- 
charge of serum, and slimy matter therefrom, to, 
which the French shepherds give a particular name, 
(les mouillures. ) 

Q. How long do these discharges continue before _ 
the ewes bring forth ? 

A. Twenty-five days, and sometimes more than a 
month. : 

Q. What is to be done, when a ewe cline a long 
time without being able to bring forth ? 

A. It should be first ascertained, if she wants 
strength, or is too much heated or agitated: in the 
last case, it is proper to bleed her; but if she is too 
weak, it is proper to give her a couple of glasses | 
of tart wine, or drink, or beer, cider, or perry ; the 
cheapest of these beverages, in the place where the 
flock is, should be preferred. ‘The provender may 
be given, which has been before recommended, to ex- . 
cite heat at the time of coupling. But before using 
these remedies, you must be sure that the birth is de- 


5 


80 | ON EWES. 


layed only through the weakness of the dam: the 
remedies would be very contradictory, if the ewe, in- 
stead of being too weak, should be too much in- 
flamed. 

Q. By what signs is it known, ite a ewe is toe 
much heated and inflamed ?. 

A. By the ears being warm, and the pulse quicker 
than in the other ewes, by the tongue, dry lips, and. 
beating of the flanks, &c. &c. 

Q. What is proper to be done, when the ewe is 
lambing ? 

A. Nothing, if the lamb is properly presented and 
comes forth readily ; but if it remains too long in the 
passage, it is proper to assist its coming, by drawing 
it gently, and by degrees. The ewe should be assist- 
ed only when she makes an effort to discharge her 
burden. 

Q. What is to be done when the lamb is not prop- 
erly presented ? 

A. Attempts should be made to change its posi- 
tion, and to put it back, in order to place it in a situ- 
ation to be brought forth. | 

Q. What should be the position of the lamb in the 
belly of the mother, near her term, that it should be 
readily brought forth ? 

A. It should present the end of the muzzle at the 
orifice of the matrix, or womb, and should have the 
two fore feet underneath the muzzle, and a little be- 
fore it; the two:hind legs bent under the belly, and 
extending behind, in proportion as it comes forth 
from the matrix. | 


“ON EWES. 81 

Q. What are the bad positions, which commonly 
prevent lambs from being discharged from the ma- 
trix ? / 

A. 1st. The bad position of the head, which in the 
lamb, instead of presenting the end of the muzzle to 
the orifice of the matrix, presents some part of the top 
or sides of the head, whilst the end of the muzzle is 
turned aside or behind. | 

2d. The bad position of the fore legs, which in- 
stead of being extended before in a manner, that the 
feet should be found at the orifice of the matrix, with 
the muzzle, are bent under the neck, or are extend- 
ed behind. © 

3d. ‘The bad position of the ombilical or navel 
cord, when it passes before one of the legs. 

@. What ought the shepherd to do, in order to 
change these bad positions ? 

A. Whenever he perceives at the orifice of the 
matrix any other part of the head than the muzzle, 
he should endeavour to push back the head, and draw 
the muzzle to the opening of the matrix. The shep- 
herd should oil his fingers, to perform this operation, 
without injuring the ewe or lamb. If he should not 
observe the feet preceding, he should find them, and 
- draw them tothe orifice of the matrix : if the fore legs 
are stretched behind, he should endeavour'to bring 
out the head, and afterwards attempt to draw out the 
two fore legs together, or one after the other, to pre- 
vent the shoulders from being too great an obstacle to 
the discharge of the lamb. If the fore legs should 
remain stretched. behind, it will be necessary to draw 

1} 


\ ; 
: ON EWES. 


the lamb with so much force, as to bring out his 
shoulders, even at the risk of killing him: should he 
observe the navel string to be before one of the legs, 
he should endeavour to break it, without stopping 
the delivery ; the string breaks of itself, as soon as 
the lamb is brought forth. 

Q. What is the after birth ? 

A. The after birth is composed of membranes, 
which enveloped the lamb in the belly of the mother ; 
it is thrown out sometimes after the lamb is born: if 
it does not come away of itself, the shepherd should 
endeavour to draw it away gently; if it be done by 
force, there is danger of breaking it, or tearing the 
matrix, or pulling it out with the after birth. When 
the after birth is discharged, it should be detached 
from the ewe, lest she should eat it. 

@. What is proper to be done for a ewe after 
lambing ? y : 

AA. Some hours after the ewe has lambed, it is 
proper to give her a little warm water, with bran, 
barley or oats, and the best food, which the season af- 
fords, and she should be left for some days with her 
lamb; while she nurses, she should be well fed. 

Q. What ought to be done, that the ewe should 
nurse and take care of her lamb ? ‘ 
A. The teat of the mother, that is, their ends, 
should be. pressed for the purpose of opening them 
to give passage for the flow of the milk : it is proper 
to observe, if the ewe licks the lamb; and if she does 
not, a little powdered salt should be scattered over 
the lamb, to induce her to lick it: when the weather 


ON EWES. : 85 


is moist and cold, the mother should be assisted, if 
necessary, in drying her lamb, by wiping it with hay 
or linen. Ewes with their first lambs are more lia- 
ble than others, to neglect them. To make them 
more attentive, they should be separated from the 
flock, and shut up alone with their lambs. When 
a lamb does not of himself search for the teat to 
suck, he should be forced to it, and some of the 
milk should’ be drawn from the teat into his mouth. 
When a ewe repels her lamb, and hinders it from 
sucking, or avoids it, she should be held, and one of 
her hind legs raised, so as to place the teats within 
reach of the lamb. 

@. How many lambs will a ewe produce at a 
birth 2 | 

A. Commonly one, sometimes two, and very rare- 
ly, three; there is a breed of sheep, which yean 
twice in the year. It is said, that the ewes of Juliers 
and Cleves produce twice a year, and have two or 
three lambs at a birth ; and that five ewes would pro- 
duce twenty-five lambs ina year. 

€. What is proper to be done, when a ewe makes 
more of one lamb, than another of the same litter ? 

A. If the mother is fat, and the teats are well fill- 
ed, if the season begins to be good for pasturing, two 
lambs may be left with her, but the third should be 
taken away ; the second should also, if the ewe is fee- 
ble, or has but little milk, or the season is unfa- 
vourable. | 

Q. How can the ewes, which have not milk 
enough, be made to give more ? 


84 ON EWES. 


_ A. By giving them oats or barley, mixed with 
bran, radishes, turnips, carrots, parsnips, salsifis, 
(goat’s beard) boiled peas, beans, cabbages, or 
ground ivy, (gechoma hederacea, L.) and by driv- 
ing them to better pastures: it is remarked, that the 
change of pasture gives them appetite, and does them 
much good, provided they are not taken from a good 
to an inferior one. 
- Q. At what time can ewes be milked ? | 

A. When the lamb, which the ewe should nurse, 
cannot suck, the milk is drawn from the teat for the 
lamb to drink it: the ewes may be milked, when the 
lambs are dead or weaned. There are German shep- 
herds,who wean the lambs at six weeks or twomonths, 
and afterwards milk the ewe for the whole year; as 
soon as the lambs can feed, there are people who sep- 
arate them from their mothers, without weaning them, 
altogether. In the morning, after having milked the 
ewes, they allow the lambs to suck the little milk, 
which remains in the teats: afterwards they remove 
’ the lambs for the whole day :—in the evening, they do 
the same ; and it is said, that the little milk, which re- 
mains at each time, with the herbage of the pastures, 
will afford sufficient food for the lambs; but if the 
grass be not very nourishing, this custom may be 
hurtful to the lambs. 

Q. What happens to the ewes, when they are 
milked or suckled for too long a time ? 

A. The drawing off of the milk preserves them 
from many diseases, which might arise from super- 
abundant humours: but when it continues for too 


f 


ON LAMBS. 85 


long a time, the ewes grow thin, fall away, and their 
wool is reduced in quantity. 

Q. What ewes can be milked with advantage ? 

A. There is no risk in milking ewes, whose wool 
is of a bad quality and little value ; but it is improper 
to milk such as have good wool, or are principally 
depended on, for the rearing and maintaining the 
breed. However, if they are to be suspected of dis- 
eases arising from superfluous humours, they may 
be milked once or twice a week to carry them off: it 
is thought, that this precaution preserves them from 
pulmonic diseases, the rot, &c. but it would be prop- 
er to throw away the milk, as it is unhealthy. 

Q. What is done with the ewe’s milk ? 

A. It may be used like cow’s milk; it affords less 
whey ; is richer and more agreeable to the taste: it 
has more of the parts proper for making cheese, 
which, if well made from it, is excellent, and in great 
demand ; and this is principally the case with the 
eheese of Roquefort, in the department of Aveyron. 


CHAPTER) X. 


CONCERNING LAMBS. 


Q. Wuar is proper to be done, when a lamb is 
just dropt ?. 

A. It is necessary, to examine the bag of the 
mother, to cut away the wool, if there is any on it, to 
know, if she has milk enough, and to squeeze it from 
the teats, to see if it be good. It should afterwards 


86 ‘ON LAMBS. 


be observed if the ewe licks her lamb, and the lamb 
of himself sucks. 

Q. How is it known if the milk be good ? 

A: The milk may be supposed good, if the ewe is 
in good health, and it is white and of a good consist- 
ence, that is, thick enough. But when it is glutin- 
ous, blue, yellow or clear, it 1s bad. 

Q. What ought to be done if the ewe has no milk, 
or not enough, or the milk appears bad, or the ewe 
is sick, or dies in lambing ? 

A. The lamb should be given to another ewe, 
which may have lost its lamb, or to a goat, which has 
milk ? 

Q. What is to be done, when a ewe will not suckle 
a lamb, which did not come from her ? 

A. The ewe, it is said, may be deceived, by cov- 
ering the lamb fora night, with the skin of that, 
which she lost, if the skin is fresh ;—although it had 
been taken off in the morning, the ewe is made to be- 
lieve she has recovered her own lamb. But there is 
a more ready method, which is only to rub the body 
of the dead lamb against the ‘one, it is intended to be 
nursed in its place. | 

Q. What ought to be done, when there is neither 
a ewe nor a goat to suckle a lamb, which has lost its 
mother ? 7 : 
__ A. Alamb is made to drink warm ewe’s, goat’s, or 
_cow’s milk, at first, by the spoon, and afterwards by 
the tippler, the snout of which is covered with linen, 
for the purpose of making the lamb suck as though 
it was the teat of a ewe. The tippler should be 
given as often as he would have sucked. The lamb 


ON LAMBS. 87 


must be kept in a place, as warm as it would have 
had, when lying by the side of its dam. There are 
lambs which, at the end of three days, have dispens- 
ed with the tippler, and drank out of a bowl: at first, 
the milk is given four times, then three, and at length 
twice in a day, until they are strong enough to eat 
grass. | 

Q. If there is no milk, or it cannot be spared, can 
another drink be substituted ? , 

A. Warm water, with barley flour mixed in it, may 
be given, but it is less nourishing than milk. 

Q. What care should be taken in making a lamb 
drink through a tippler ? 

A. Itis proper to be cautious that the mouth should 
not be too high, because in this position, the milk 
may suffocate the lamb by entering the pee through 
the wind pipe. 

Q. What must be done, when a lamb looks de- 

\ jected, weak or thin ? | 3 

A. The shepherd should observe, if the dam is in 
good health, the milk good, and the lamb sucks; or 
whether there is another lamb which steals his milk. 
There are ravenous lambs, which suck many ewes, 
one after the other, while the lambs of such ewes 
' want food. It should be carefully observed, that all! 

the lambs, principally the weakest, suck their own 
dams, have good milk, and in sufficient quantity ; the 
greater part of the lambs which are lost, die of hun- 
ger, or from bad milk. 7 

Q. What proof is there that a great number of 
lambs die with hunger ? 

A. OF forty-three lambs, which were opened at 


88 ON LAMBS. 


Montbard, before the month of April, in 1767, twen- 
' ty-one died with hunger; for no food or substance 
could be found in the stomach or guts. 

- Q. After hunger and bad milk, what further i is to 
be apprehended for the lambs ? 

A. The wool that they may swallow forms in the 
rennet bag, balls, called by the French shepherds, 
gobbes; but it often happens, that these gobbes or 
balls close the entrance of the guts, prevent the pas- 
sage of the food, and kill the lambs. When the dug 
of the ewe is covered with wool, the lamb is apt to 
seize it instead of the teat, to pull it off and swallow 
it; on this account, the shepherd should examine the 
dugs of the ewes, and cut off the wool, which may be 
found on them: when the lambs eat at the rack, 
some of the finer parts of the hay fall on their bodies, 
and attach to, and remain on the wool; the lambs 
seeing these bits of hay upon their mothers, and on 
the other lambs, in their desire to eat them, are apt 
to draw out and swallow filaments of wool, from 
which, these balls are formed. The racks should be 
placed very low, so as to prevent the fragments of - 
hay from falling upon the lambs; and if the shep- 
herd should see any of them on the wool, or on that 
of the ewes, he should take them off. The manner 
of knowing and relieving sheep, when thus oppress- 
ed, will be hereafter explained. 

Q. What ought to be done with lambs benumbed 
with cold ? 

A. When a lamb has suffered a great deal from 
cold, it should be warmed and covered with warm 
linen, and laid before a gentle fire, in such a manner 


ON LAMBS. aa 


that his head may be shaded by his body. In England 
they put lambs stiffened with cold into stacks of hay, 
or into an oven heated with straw only : lambs have 
been thereby saved, which have suffered so much 
from the cold, as to have scarcely the appearance of 
life. The lamb is made to take a spoonful of warm 
milk, or if necessary, a spoonful of beer, or of wine 
and water. It is fed by the fire side for some days, 
and if it continues feeble, is put with its mother into 
a covered or close place, until recovered. 

@. What is proper to be done with lambs, which 
do not come till the end of April or in/May ? 

A. They are not kept. in the flock, because they 
are feeple and small, but are fatted for eating. It is 
easy to fat them, because they come at a season when 
there is a great deal of feed : these are the first lambs — 
from young ewes, and the last from the old ones. In 
France they have the name of tardons, or late com- 
ers; and in England, cuckolds, because they come in 
the season, in which this bird sings. 

Q. How are lambs fatted ? 

A. They are kept in the fold, where they suck their 
dams night and morning, and during the night. In the 
day time, while their dams are in the field, they allow 
them to suck the ewes, which have lost their lambs, 
and fresh litter is given them once or twice every twen- 
ty-four hours. A large lump of chalk is placed for 
them to lick : the chalk prevents them from scouring, 
to which they are liable, and which hinders them from 
~ fatting. When the male lambs, which are for fatting, 
are fifteen days old, they should be cut or castrated, 

12 


— ON LAMBS. 


_ for reasons to be given hereafter, when treating) of 
wethers : male lambs cut, have their flesh as good as 
' female lambs, but they do not attain the size of those, 
which have not been cut: most people, who fat lambs 
for sale, do not like to cut them, until they are large ; 
and although their flesh has not so good a flavour, 
they sell better. ih, 43 

~ Q. At what age can’ lambs take other food than 
milk ? 

A. There. are lambs, which begin to eat at the 
troughs and in the rack, and to feed on grass when 
eighteen days old ; then the following things may be 
given them in their troughs. 

Oat-meal alone, or mixed with bran ; it is said, that 
bran gives them too much belly, if it is not mixed 
~ with other food. 

Peas; the blue coloured are more tender and nour- 
ishing than the white or grey : if they are cracked in 
boiling water, and mixed. with milk, they are the 
more tender and relishing; they may be also mixed 
with oat-meal or barley flour, but barley flour alone 
disgusts them, from its sticking to their teeth. 

Oats or barley in grain, (or passed two or three 
turns ina mill) is the food, that lambs like the best ; 
it is also the most healthy, and that which fats them 
‘the most readily. 

Hay, such as is the finest; that is, not coarse hay. 

Straw, twice thrashed to make it softer. 

. Dry trefoil, oat chaff, &c. and particularly saintfoin. 

The grasses of low grounds, and all: such as are 
_ good for fatting wethers, as will be shewn in the next 
chapter. 


ON LAMBS. | 91 


Q. At what age are lambs fit for eating ? 

A. They are eaten at three weeks or rather a month, 
at six weeks, and at the latest, two months old. 

Q. What precautions do lambs etal before they 
are weaned ? 

A. Such as have been kept under cover on ac- 

count of severe cold should not be kept too warm: 
_ air should be given them, and they should be made to 
go out as often as possible, to strengthen them. 
When a lamb is eight days old, he can follow his 
mother near the fold :» when the lambs are sick, they 
should be treated according to their age and diseases. 

Q. When should lambs be weaned ? 

A. At such time as the milk of the mother begins 
to dry: the lamb is then about two months old. 
It is in the month of May for the lambs which 
come in February, or in the beginning of March: if 
they come sooner, they should be allowed to suck 
longer, in order that they should have good feed, 
when weaned. For example, when a lamb comes in 
December, he cannot have good grass in February, 
in countries where the wihter is severe; it is there- 
fore necessary to wait until the month of March or 
April te wean him. There are people, who do not 
wean their lambs, until shearing: some do not know 
their mothers after shearing their fleeces ; it happens 
oftener, that the mother does not know its lamb, but ~ 
with difficulty, after it has been shorn : if the lamb re- 
mains with the ewe, she weans it herself, when her 
milk fails or she is disposed to take ram, when she 
discards and drives it from her; sometimes the 
lam bs dislike sucking, when there is good pasture. 


92 ON Sn 


. How are lambs weaned ? 

A. They are separated from their dams, and if pos- 
sible, at such a distance as not to be within hearing of 
each other’s bleating ; and that they may the more 
readily forget each other, an old ewe should be 
turned out with about forty lambs to guide and keep 
them together: they are put into pastures of trefoil, 
mellilot,* or rye grass, &c. or into common pastures, 
if they are not moist. There is a method of weaning 
lambs without separating them from the ewes, by a 
sort of a muzzle, which is put on them, loose enough 
to allow ‘them to. feed; it is armed with points, or 
thorns, to prick the dugs of the ewe, which is there- 
by obliged to repel her lamb, when it attempts suck- 
ling ; but these points should not be sharp enough to 
wound the bag of the ewe. 

Q. Is it proper to cut off the tail of the lambs ? 

A. It is said, that the tail of the lamb should be 
so shortened, as only to prevent it from loading with 
mud at the end, lest when collected and hardened, it 
should wound the legs of the animal, or excite it to 
run: when a sheep, having a ball of dry earth attach- 
ed to the end of the tail, begins to quicken his pace, 
it strikes more and more upon the lower part of the 
legs; these strokes, being redoubled, excite the sheep 
to that degree, that it is difficult to stop him : the end 
" of the tail of the lambs should be cut, in a country 
where the mud is of a nature to stick thereto and be- 


come hard. 


* Trifolium melilotus officinalis, L. 


ON WETHERS. 9g 


Q. How ought the tail of the lamb to be cut ? 

A. This operation should be performed in mild 
weather, when the lamb is a month or twe old, or in 
the autumn after his birth: the tail is cut at the joint 
between two bones : wood ashes should be put upon 
the wound; if the ashes should not answer, mix 
some tallow with them. 

. Is it proper to cut the wool from the tail ? 

A. The wool should be-cut from the tail and even 
from the buttocks, when loaded with dung, which 
_ will produce itching and the scab. 


CHAPTER XI. 


CONCERNING WETHERS. 


Q. Wauy do they make wethers ? 

A. It is done to render the flesh more tender, and 
to take from it a bad flavour, which it would have, if 
the ram was left in his natural state; to dispose him 
to take more fat; to make the wool finer and more 
abundant, and at the same time, the animal more 
gentle and manageable. , 

Q. How are wethers made ? 

A. By castration ; lambs castrated are called weth- 
ers ata year old. 
~ . At what age should lambs be castrated ? 

A. In a week or fortnight after their birth : it is al- 
so customary to castrate them at three weeks, or-at 
five or six months; but their flesh is never so good, as 
when they are castrated at eight days old: the longer 


9A ON WETHERS. 


the operation is delayed, the more likely it is to de- 
stroy the lamb. ‘Those which are castrated have 
not the head so beautiful, nor do they become so 
large as the others. 

Q. In what manner should they be castrated ? 

A. When the lamb is castrated in eight or ten 
days, the most simple method is, to make an opening 
by an incision at the bottom of the bag, and to force 
the testicles through the opening, and to cut off the 
cords above the testicles: this is what is called lamb 
castrating. When the lambs are older, incisions are 
made on each side of the bag, and the testicles forc- 
ed through the two incisions, and the cord cut above 
each testicle: this operation is called calf cutting, be- 
cause calves are castrated in the same manner.* 

Q. What precautions should be taken before and 
after these operations ? 

A. It is necessary to choose a season, when it is 


* There is still another method of castrating before killing them, 
which is more simple, and quicker done :—a single opening is made at 
the bottom of the bag, and one testicle is first forced through this open- 
ing, which the shepherd seizes with his teeth and draws out, whilst 
with both hands he sustains the bag; the second testicle is then forced 
through the same opening, and taken out in the same manner. Some 
persons, after forcing out the testicle, gently twist the cord, and then 
take it out more easily by hand; less risk is run in this way of mak- 
ing an inward rupture: the opening is shut by gently pressing together 
the edges of the wound with the fingers, without putting any kind of 
grease to it, and the cicatrix readily forms. All these methods of cas- 
trating succeed equally well, and it is rare that accidents happen. 
There is a contraction in the jaws sometimes observed ; the shepherd, 
to remove or prevent it, when the lamb is put on his feet, after the ope- 


ration, passes his finger into his mouth to make him chew a little....Hu- 
zard. 


ON WETHERS. . | 95 


neither too hot nor too cold: great heat may make 
the wound mortify; too great cold might hinder it 
from healing. After the operation, the bag is to be 
rubbed with hogs’ lard; the lambs should be kept 
still for two or three days, and be better fed than 
usual. | bike. | | 

Q. Is there no other method of making wethers ? 

A. There are two others; one is to tie the bag 
above the testicles tight with a piece of twine. The 
ligature is continued for eight days, when the bag is 
cut off below it. This operation is performed only, 
when the animal is eighteen months or two years 
old. The other method is by grasping the bag . 
above the testicles and twisting it: the testicles are 
afterwards forced up into the belly, and a ligature 
is made above the bag to prevent the testicles from 
again descending, and is thus left for several days: 
this operation is performed on rams, three months 
before killing them. 

_Q. What are castrated ewes ? 

A. Castrated ewes are ewes from which the ovary 
has been taken, at an early age, to prevent them from 
breeding : on account of this kind of castration, they 
are called brebis chartrices, castrated ewes ; but it is 
better, says our author, to call them female wethers, 
because they are in the state of common wethers. 

Q. For what purpose, do they castrate ewes ? 

A. To make them as useful as wethers, in the wool 
they produce, and in the quality of the flesh. 

Q. At what age are they so made ? 

A. They wait until the ewe lambs are six weeks 


96 ON WETHERS. 


_ old, because it is necessary, that the ovary should be 
as large as haricot beans, so as to be easily felt with 
the finger. 

Q. How is the operation performed ? — 

A. The shepherd performs it by laying the lamb 
on the right side, near the edge of a table, for the 
purpose of having the head hanging from it: he 
places on his left an assistant, who draws out the left 
hind leg of the lamb, grasping it with the left hand at 

the fet-lock, above the hoofs, to keep in place; a 
second assistant, placed upon the right of the opera- 
tor, takes the fore legs and right hind one, and grasps 
them all three in his right-hand at the fet-lock. The 
lamb being thus prepared, the operator raises. the 
skin. on the left flank, with the two first fingers of. the 
left hand, to form a fold at an equal distance between 
the highest part of the bone of the haunch, and the 

-navel : the assistant on the left side lengthens this fold, 

“with the left hand also, quite to the place of the faise 
rrb ; then the operator cuts the fold with a very sharp 
knife, so that the incision should be only an inch and 
an half long, on a line from the highest part of the 
haunch bone to the navel. ‘The opening being made, 
by cutting by degrees through the whole thickness 
of the flesh, quite to the place of the guts, without 
touching them, the operator introduces his fore fin- 
ger, that is, that which is next to the thumb, into the 

belly of the lamb, in search of the left ovary : as soon 

as he ‘feels it, he gently draws it out through the 
opening: the two large ligaments, the womb, the 
matrix, and the other ovary come out at the same 


“ -¢* ON WETHERS. 97 


time: the operator cuts off the two ovaries, and puts 
back the ligaments and matrix; he then makes a 
seam of three stitches, at the opening, to close it; he 
passes the needle through the skin only, without its 
entering the flesh, and leaves on the outside the:two 
ends of the thread, and puts a little grease upon the 
wound. After ten or twelve days, when the skin is 
cicatrised, the thread is cut at the middle stitch, and 
the two ends drawn out to prevent suppuration: when 
this operation is well done, the lambs feel it only the 
first day ; their legs are a little stiff, and they do not 
suck; but on the second day they will wig as 
usual. 

Q. What soil agrees best with wethers ? 

A. In general, high and dry soils agree better with 
sheep than low and moist ones, principally for rams 
and wethers for keeping; that is, for wethers not in- 
tended for fatting. But moist pastures contribute 
to fatten wethers, ewes, and lambs, and the corded 
rams designed for the butcher. 

Q. In what soil — sheep of different ages be 
pore er 

A. Wethers three or four years old are ‘plshiesble 
only in soils having a great deal of feed; but wethers 
one or two years old may be profitable in sng: where 
the pastures are not so rich. 

Q. When young wethers have been put into thin 
pastures, what is to be done with them when older ? 

A. They should be sold to people, who have better 
pastures, who will again sell them to others having 
such as are still better. In this way each draws the 

13 


98 ON WETHERS. 
full profit from his pasture, by purchasing every year, 


wethers of an age best suited to the quality of the soil, 
for which he intends them. The produce of the 
fleece is obtained, together with the profit, which is 
made by selling them higher at the end of the year, 
than their first cost, on account of the growth they 
have obtained in the time. ; 

@. When are wethers found to be fat in a flock ? 

A. In examining the flocks in autumn, there are of- 
ten found fat wethers, without having taken measures 
to fat them. Although they may not have as much 
tallow as those, which have been forced by food, they 
are to be preferred, their tallow being firmer, and their 
flesh more healthy : itis good health that makes them 
fatter than the rest of the flock. If they are not kill- 
ed, they will lose their flesh in winter, and recover it 
the year following. It is not like the fat of sheep 
forced by food, which is a disease of which the ani- 
mal will die, if not timely sent to the butcher. 

Q. What is proper to be done to fat wethers ? 

A. There are three methods of fatting them: one 
is, by pasturing them in good feed; this is called 
grass fatting: the second is to give them good food 
at the rack and in the troughs, which is called dry 
fatting, from the fodder by which it is produced: the 
third, is to put the wethers to herbage in autumn, and - 
afterwards to stall feeding, (a ’engrais de pouture. ) 

Q. How much time is required to fat wethers by 
erass ? | agi : 

A. That depends upon the quantity and quality of 
the grasses: when they are good, wethers may be 


ON WETHERS. 99 


fatted in two or three months, and of course three 
fattings may be made in a year ; in beginning as early 
as March, when the pastures are not so good, it re- 
quires a longer time. 

@. What care do wethers require, when put to fat 
on grass ? 

A. It is proper to keep them as quiet as possible ; 
to drive them very gently, and to observe not to heat 
them, but to make them drink as much as possible, 
taking care that they do not scour, which is com- 
monly produced by dew. 

Q. How do they manage wethers to fat them on 
grass ? 

A. This fatting is made only in the spring, sum- 
mer and autumn, in countries where the frost destroys 
the grass: the wethers are driven to pasture very ear- 
ly in the morning, before the sun has dried the feed; — 
they are then put into cool and shady places during 
the heat of the day, and made to drink ; they are again 
driven to moist pastures in the evening, and et left 
till it is quite night. 

@. What are the best grasses for the fatting of 
wethers ? 

A. Lucern is the most nutritious grass, and fats 
them the soonest; but it is said, the fat becomes yel- 
low, and has a disagreeable taste ; it is apt to inflate 
them, and may cause their death. The trefoils are 
almost as nutritious and dangerous as lucern; it is 
pretended, they give mutton a yellow colour, but a 
good flavour. Saintfoin is good for fatting, and 
nothing injurious is to be apprehended from it. 


( 


nd 


‘100 ON WETHERS. 


Q. What other grasses are there Fee the fatting of 
mutton? — 

_ A. The fromental (quitch grass, wie fescue grass, 
or bird grass,) herds grass,* ray grass, and ‘pasture 
grasses, particularly those of low moist meadows, and 
in some countries stubble after harvest : herbage gen- 
erally of the woods makes good pasture for sheep, 
but does not fat them so fast, as lucern, trefoil, and 
saintfoin. 

Q. What is the method of stall feeding, lengrais 
de poutoure ? 

A. This method of fatting is done in the cold sea- 
son of the year, that is, in December: after having 
shorn the wethers, they are shut up ina stable and 
allowed to go out only at noon, while they are putting 
fodder into their troughs; in the morning and even- 
ing, and in long nights, they are fed at the rack. 

Q. What food is given to sheep, while stall feeding? 

A. Good fodder, grain, and other very nourishing 
things are given them, according to the produce of 
the country, and its price ; but care should be taken, 
that the expense of fatting shall not exceed the gain 
to be derived from selling them, when fat. In many 
places they give to three or four years old wethers 
each three fourths of a pound of hay, morning and 
evening, and at noon a pound of oats anda pound of 
bread, or oil eakes, made from rape, or hemp seed 
broken to the size of hazel nuts, and water them 
every day. In other places, each wether has given to 
him every morning ten ounces of hay, a quarter of a 
pound of oats, and oil cakes as above; and in the eve- 


* Phleum Pratense. 


> 


ON WETHERS. -101 


ning ten ounces of hay ; but the best method is to 
give them as much as they can eat of this food. The 
bread or oil cakes make the flesh oily, and gives too 
much tallow; it is necessary to substitute for the oil 
cake, some other food for the last fifteen days, in or- 
der to give the flesh a good flavour. | 

Q. What is the best food for stall feeding sheep ? 

A. The different kinds of grain, such as oats, or 
coarsely ground barley, or barley flour, peas, beans, 
&c. the food, which fattens the most, is oats mixed 
with barley flour, or bran, or both together. If bran 
is mixed alone with barley flour, it will stick to the 
teeth, and the wethers are disgusted with it. 

Q. Is there other food for the fatting of wethers ? 

A. They may be fatted with turnips or cabbages. 

- Q. How are sheep fatted with turnips ? 

A. ‘They begin by pasturing the wethers upon the 
stubble, after harvest, until the month of October, to 
dispose them to fatting; afterwards they are put into 
a field of turnips in the day, and in the evening oats 
with bran and barley meal are giventhem. ‘Turnips 
in a good soil, well cultivated, and eaten before being 
too old, rotten or frozen, are seldom less beneficial, 
and perhaps quite as good as grass for fatting ; they 
make the flesh tender and well flavoured ; but when 
good food is given them in the troughs in the eve- 
ning, it contributes still more to fatten them, and to 
making the flesh tender: it preserves them from sick- 
ness, which turnips in a moist soil will give them, 
Turnips, which are old and wormy, rotten or frozen, 
make bad food: an acre of good turnips, may fat. 
thirteen or fourteen wethers, 


102 ON WETHERS. 


Q. How do they fatten wethers with cabbages ? 

A. Wethers are put into fields of cabbages, de 
choux cavaliers, or de choux firises, from the month 
of October to February : cabbages fatten sheep soon- 
er than grass, but they give a rancid taste to the flesh ; 
and when wethers eat old cabbages, their breath has 
a bad smell, which is perceived as soon as you draw 
near the flock. To prevent cabbages from inflating 
the sheep, and giving bad taste to the flesh, a sweeter 
_ food should be given them in their troughs, such as. 
oats, peas, barley flour, &c. 

_Q. By what signs is it known, when a wether is fat ? 

A. It is proper to feel of the tail, which sometimes 
becomes as thick as the wrist, and also on the shoul- 
ders and chest ; if the fat is there felt, it isa sign that 
the wethers are very fat. After having sheared them, 
the fat on the back appears in little bladders, like 
foam : it is a mark of good fatting, which commonly 
happens, when they have eaten pike 

Q. Can fat wethers live for a long time ? 

A. Sheep which have been fatted on herbage, or 
stall fed, will not live more than three months, if they 
should not be sent to the butcher: the water, which 
contributes to the fatting, will give them the rot. 

@. At what age is it proper to fat wethers ? 

A. If fat, tender and well flavoured mutton be de- 
sired, it is proper to stall feed wethers at two or three 
years old. Two year old wethers have a small car- 
cass and but little tallow: at four years old, they are 
thicker, and become much fatter, but their flesh is not 
so tender: at five years, their flesh is hard and dry : 
if, however, the profit of their fleeces and dung is 


ON SHEEP’S WOOls 163 


wanted, they may be kept still longer, even to ten 

years old, in a country where sheep live to that age ; 

but care must be taken to fatten them a year or fifteen 
months before the time they begin to decay. 


Ef Gar en 


CHAPTER XII. . 


ON SHEEP’S WOOL. 


Q. Ar what time ought sheep to be shorn ? 

A. In the spring there starts a new wool on the 
skin of the sheep: this is questionable in regard to the 
coarser wooled sheep, and not true in regard to the 
fine wool of the latter, as the wool is formed by pro- 
portion from the root, that is protruded forward like 
hair : by removing the locks of the old wool the points 
of the new are perceived, and when it begins to push 
eut, or shoot, it is then time to shear. 

@. What inconveniences would arise from shear- 
ing too soon ? 

A. The wool would not be in its true state of ma- 
turity ; it would not have all the qualities, which it 
would acquire at the natural term of its growth. 
Sheep being shorn too soon in cold countries, would 
suffer injury from the air. 

Q. What would be the inconveniences of shear- 
ing too late ? | 

A. When the new wool begins to appear, the old 
easily pulls out, and the least obstruction is sufficient 
for it; therefore if the sheep rub against hedges or 
bushes, the branches catch some locks of the wool, 


104 ON SHEEP’s WOOL. 


which remain suspended thereto, after being detach- 
ed from the skin: the longer the shearing is delayed, 
the more the wool is pulled off. 

. Has not late shearing other injurious effects ? 

A. It is the occasion of another loss :. when.the 
wool has attained some lines in length, it is cut off at 
the time of shearing : although it might increase the 
weight of the fleece, the owner loses, instead of gain- 
ing by it; because the intelligent purchaser and 
manufacturer knows, that this new. wool, being very 
short, separates from the old, when it is worked :_ so 
much therefore is the price of the fleece reduced :— 
‘The new wool, being cut at the ends, is not so long 
as it ought to be the year following.* 

‘Q. When the new wool makes its appearance, is 
there any thing to be done before shearing ? 

. A. There is nothing to be done, if the fieece is to 
be taken off without washing it; but this is a bad 

custom : it is better to wash the wool upon the body 

of the sheep before shearing it; it takes out the dirt, 
which fouls, and may spoil the fleece, if it remained 
a long time in the urine, dung, and mud, with which 
it is loaded. \The owner knows the value of the 
fleeces better when he sells them at the weight, after 
they have been washed on the sheeps back, than if 
he sold them inthe dirt. The purchaser under- 


** Upon the fall and renewing of sheep’s wool, the French editor, 
. M. Huzard, recommends ‘to be read, the account that citizen Tassier 
and he had made to the class of the National Institute, for mathematical 
and physical-sciences, (8th and 9th years,) on the sale of wool, and on ~ 
the fine sheep’s wool of the flock of Rambouillet. It is the result of 
our observations and experience, that the breed of fine wooled Sheep 
does not renew the wool annually....Muzard. ; 


ON SHEEP’S WOOL. 105 


stands better how to purchase, than the owner to sell, 
for the reason, that the one sells only once a year, 
whilst the other purchases every day.. 

Q. How is the fleece washed on the sheep’s back ? 

A. Each sheep is forced into a running stream as 
high as the middle of his body, and the shepherd 
also goes into’ it, as high at least as his knees, and 
rubs his hand over, and presses the wool at different 
times, to, clean it properly: this washing may be 
made in stagnant water, if it be clear. But in places, 
where there is only spring water, or that of wells or 
cisterns, it is sufficient to use it with pails. It 
is poured from a water-pot upon the wool of the 
sheep, pressing it with the hand; but if a fall of 
water of three or four feet could ‘be obtained, it 
should be received into a tub, in which the sheep 
should be alternately plunged: two men with their 
sleeves tucked up, or covered with false sleeves of 
glazed linen, would, in that case, wash them better, 
than in any other manner. The experiment of wash- 
ing with spring water has been for many years tried, 
without the sheep deriving any inconvenience from 
the coldness of the water. ‘The sheep, which are 
kept in the open air for the whole year, are often ex- 
posed to rains, quite as cold as’'a bath from spring 
water. . 

Q. What precautions should be taken before 
shearing the sheep which have been washed ? 

A. It is necessary to wash them Several times, In 
order that the wool may be very clean, and have a 
quick sale. After the last washing, the sheep should 

14 


106 ON SHEEP’S WOOL. 


be kept in a clean place, until sheared, which should 
not be undertaken before the fleece is dry, lest the 
fleece should be liable to damage, from being wet. 
It is proper, therefore, to omit the last whahing: until 
fair weather.* 

Q. What are the means of foreseeing fine weather ? 

A. Country people have a great many signs for 
fine weather and rain; but the most of them are ei- 
ther false or uncertain: they are unacquainted with 
the barometer, which is the best method of fore- 
telling it: a well informed shepherd should be ac- 
quainted with it. Quicksilver is presented ima glass 
tube, which ascends and descends according to the 
state of the atmosphere. On the side of the tube, it 
is marked by inches. and lines. When we look at 
the barometer, we should remark at what inch, or 
line, the quicksilver stands; and return some time 
after, to ascertain if it rises or falls: if it has ascend- 
ed, it is a sign of fair weather ; if it has fallen, it is a 
sign of rain or wind. 

Q. What is the method of shearing sheep ? 

A. Some are accustomed to tie the four legs to- 
gether, to prevent them from struggling ; but it is a 
bad practice: when they are thus tied, the belly, and 


* The washing the wool on the sheep’s back is not in general use : 
it does not agree with and cannot be done in France on fine wooled 
sheep. It is desirable, that the farmers should all be accustomed to 
wash the wool themselves after shearing: they would thereby ascertain 
the exact loss, which takes place, and avoid the deceit of brokers and 
shopmen, to whom they are obliged to sell it, and who avail themselves 
of the waste not being known, to exaggerate it, and thereby obtain the 
wool ata lower price....Huzard.. 


ON SHEEP’S WOOL. 107 


of course the bladder, are pressed in such a manner, 
that the dung and urine are discharged, and dirty the 
fleece. It is better to lay the sheep on a table bored. 
_ with many holes near the edge, and to pass a cord 
through these holes in several places, so as to retain 
the fore legs in one place, and the hind in another; 
if it is a horned ram, one of his horns may be lashed 
to the table : by this means, the animal is less clog- 
ged, and the shearers work at their ease, and may be 
seated. This convenience is necessary for a work, 
which requires care and address; for the wool should 
be cut with shears, very near to the skin, but without 
wounding it. When the sheep is shorn on one side of 
the body, he is unlaced, turned, and tied on the other.* 
~ Q. Is it proper to shear all the lambs ? 

A. It is best not to shear the weak lambs : in leav- 
ing them their wool, they are preserved from the 
accidents, to which they are liable after shearing, 
and are better clothed for the winter. Their fleece 
is larger the year following, and recompenses the 
loss in the first year. | 

Q. What proof is there of this recompense ? 

A. Six lambs were shorn at the end of June, 1773, 
only on the side of the head, neck, body, and tail. 
These half-fleeces were weighed, and the other halves 


* Mr. Livingston, of New York, in a late essay on sheep, recommends 
to shearers, the tying the fore and hind legs to a bar with two cross 
pieces; the bar to be abcut eighteen inches long, and the cross pieces 
six. This would leave the sheep in their natural posture, with their 
legs a little stretched out: arod of iron, with a curvature at each end, 
would perhaps be still better, because being smaller, it would be less in 
the way of the shears. - 


108 ON SHEEP’S WOOL. 


were left upon the lambs. The year following the 
same lambs being wholly shorn, and the half-fleeces 
weighed separately ; that is, those a year old, and 
those which were as old as the lamb; it was 
found, in estimating the wool of these different shear- 

' ings, that the part of the body of the lambs, which 
was shorn only once, had produced wool nearly to 
the value of that of the part, which had been twice 
shorn; the difference being only some sous (cents) 
more or less, upon each of the six lambs. 

Q. What treatment is proper to be pursued after 
the sheep are shorn ? 

A. If some signs of the itch are perceived, it 
should be rubbed with an ointment made of grease 
or tallow, and the spirits of turpentine. If the skin 
has been wounded by the shears, the same ointment 
is good for such small wounds. 

Q. How is this ointment made ? 

A. Melt a pound of tallow in summer, and of 
grease in winter; take it from the fire, and mix with 
the tallow or grease a quarter of a pound of the oil of 
turpentine, or more, if necessary, to cure the itch. 

@. What is to be feared for the sheep after shear- 
ing ? 

A. Great heat of the sun, and cid rains, for ten 
or twelve days after shearing: a hot sun hardens the 
skin on the back like horn, and disposes it to the. 
itch ; while cold rains give them cold, and chill them 
to the degree of producing death, if not speedily 
warmed. 

Q. By what perceauions yr these dangers be 

avoided? 


ON SHEEP’S WOOL. 109 


A. It isnecessary to put them in the shade in the 
middle of the day, when the sun is very scorching. 
On the contrary, if cold, rain, or hail is to be appre- 
hended, it is not proper to remove the flock far from 
the fold, lest it be necessary to bring it back speedily 
to put it under cover. This more rarely happens to 
sheep, which are always in the open air, than to oth- 
ers; for in a fold, which is situated in the depart- 
ment of la Cote d’or, near to Montbard, and where 
there have been no stables for thirty years, they have 
never been obliged to put sheep under cover after 
being shorn. 

Q. How can the flocks be put under cover in 
folds, where they remain always in the open air, and 
where, of course, there are no stables ? | 

A. If they are obliged to put flocks under cover 
after shearing, it is ina season when the barns are 
empty, which may serve asa retreat to sheep, to 
shelter or warm them. 

Q. At what time, and in what manner, are the 
fleeces washed ? | 

A. They are washed immediately after shearing, 
in the hottest days of July, because the water, being 
heated, cleans the wool better: the fleeces may be 
washed in running, and even stagnant water, if it be 
clear. They begin with picking off the straws, and 
other matters adhering to the fleeces, which are beat- 
en to get out the dust ; and the flakes are opened, in 
order that the water may more easily penetrate them. 
The wool is afterwards put into large wicker baskets, 
placed in the middle of the water, and stirred in dif- 


ro 


110 ON SHEEP’S WOOL. 


ferent directions with a stick. It is finally taken out 
and put to dry on hurdles in the shade, because the. 
heat of the sun would spoil the wool, by drying it 
too suddenly. 

Q. Does the washing simply with cold water 
scour the wool ? | 

A. Cold water produces no effect upon the natural 
grease of the wool. 

Q. How is wool to be scoured ? , 

A. A part of it is separated from the filth, or grease, 
by steeping it ina tub of warm water: they say, that 
the wool disgorges in this water ; it in fact gives out 
part of the grease, which ascends and swims on the 
surface of the water, and is scummed and strained off 
through linen cloth. The name of esipe is given 
‘to the grease in this state, and it can be used for a 
lubricating ointment ? 

Q. How is wool fully scoured ? 

A. Warm half a bottle of urine with a bottle and 
an half of water for every pound of wool; steep the 
wool for a quarter of an hour, or half as much long- 
er, keeping the baths, that is, the urine, at the same 
degree of warmth. It is known, that the bath has had 
its full effect, when the colour of the wool is the 
same through all the filaments of its flakes. Take. 
out the wool and allow it to drain on the top of the 
bath for seven or eight minutes ; afterwards put it in 
thick flakes of about a sixth of a pound, in an open 
basket placed in plain water: stir the wool with one 
or two sticks, placed in opposite directions, for five 
or six minutes: turn the wool upon a hurdle’ to dry 


ON SHEEP’S WOOL. lll 


it, without ever touching it by hand. As the liquor 
of the bath diminishes, it should be replaced by an 
eighth of urine at the second and every succeeding ad- 
dition. It is ascertained by the hand, if the bath is 
too weak or too strong. 

Q. After the sheep is shorn, what is proper to be 
done with the fleece ? 

A. It is proper to put it in the air to dry; the drier 
it is, the less it is liable to spoil. It is afterwards 
spread in such a manner, that the side next to the 
body of the animal is fuund underneath, and all the 
edges are turned back upon the middle of the other 


or out side ; it is then made intoa bundle, and fasten- 


ed at each end by some part of the wool being drawn 
out, by which it is tied together. ‘The fleeces being 
thus disposed, they are put in heaps in a dry place, 
until the time for selling them. 

Q. Is there wool of a different quality in the same 
fleece ? 

A. There are only three qualities of wool distin- 
guished in common fleeces. ‘The mother wool, upon 


the neck, and shoulders; the second wool, upon the 


sides of the body, and upon the thighs; and the third 
upon the throat, belly, tail, and legs. The superfine 
wools deserve more attention: in Spain they divide 
the fleece into four sorts of wool ; (see plate. )—It has 
been discovered only a short time, that upon the sheep 
producing superfine wool, near Montbard, the wool 
of the tail and buttocks only, was of the second qual- 


ity for fineness; and the wool on the end of the tail _ 
made the third quality. It remains to be known, if 


112 ON SHEEP’S WOOL. 


the wool on the lower part of the sides, upon the 
chest, belly and legs are of an inferior quality to the 
wool on the neck, withers, back, and on the upper 
sides of the bedy, &c. in regard to other properties 
than its fineness: manufacturers may acquire this in- 
formation by making experiments on these different 
wools. 

~ Q. What insects are most injurious to wool ? 

A. They are moths.* This name is given to the 
little caterpillars produced by butterflies, which are 
also called moths: to distinguish them from ether 
insects of the same name, they are called common 
moths: most people take moth caterpillars for 
worms, although they have legs like other caterpil- 
lars, whilst the worms have none. The butterfly 
moths are found in houses, where there is woolen 
furniture, or in stores of wool. They are nearly 
three lines long, and have a yellow, shining colour. 
They are seen fluttering about, from the latter end of 
April to the beginning of October ; a little sooner or 
later, according to the warmth of the season. Dur- 
ing the whole of this time, the winged moth lays his 
little eggs upon the wool, which can with difficulty 
be seen: it is from these eggs, the worms, which 
eat the wool, are produced. 

Q. At what season do these caterpillars spoil the 
wool the most? | ! 

A. The winged moth hatches in the months of Oc- 
tober, November, and December. ‘They are very 
small, and grow but little at this season, and are even 


* Tinea Phalena, L. 


ON SHEEP’S WOOL. 118 


benumbed in great frosts. But i in the month of 
March and the beginning of April, they speedily 
grow large, and cut a great number of the filaments 
of wool, to feed and clothe themselves: 

Q. How are the winged moths known? 

A. There are seen upon the fleeces of wool, or in 
other places, little cases, about a line in diameter by 
four or five lines in length, and rarely six; they are 
a little swelled in the middle, and opened at the two 
ends. There is a moth in each of these cases, which 
keeps him under shelter, because he is clothed only. 


with a white, thin, transparent, and delicate skin ai eS 


_ the winged moth throws out one third of the length. 
of his. body from his case, by the one or other end, 
for it can turn in the middle, at the place where it is, 
the largest : it can also come out almost wholly. 


There remains only the hinder part of the body and. C ‘ 


the two hind legs, which are attached to the case, in 
sucha manner, that the caterpillar can draw it after 
him, while walking by the means of his other legs, 
{t has only one third of, its body without the case, 

when it cuts off the filaments of the wool; and 
turns itself round indifferent directions, to seize a 
greater number of them. It is fed by the sub- 
stance of the wool, and uses it to make and en. 
large his case; it on this account partakes of the 
colour of the wool, of which it eats. There is no 
doubt, there has been, and still are winged moths 
in the wool, when their excrement is seen, scat- 
tered underneath. - ‘Tt consists of little dry and angu- 

i; ; pik 


114 ON SHEEP’S WOOL. 


lar grains, grey when the wool is white, and blackish 
when the wool is of that colour. 

Q. How do the winged moths take the form of a 
butterfly ? 

/1. When the winged moths have got their erowth, 
the most of them quit the fleeces to withdraw into 
little obscure corners of the wool store, and attach 
themselvés thereto by the two ends of the case, or 
suspend themselves to the ceiling by a single one. 
Then they shut the two openings of the case, and 
change both form and name, and take that of chrysa- 


’ lis. They remain in this state for three weeks; af- 


terwards these insects. bore the end of their sheath 
nearest the head, and come out in the figure of a 
butterfly. © 
- Q. Can wool be preserved from damage by moths? 
A. To this time, no means of certainly securing 
wool against damage by moths, have been found, 
but it may be in part avoided. Let your wool store 
be ‘ceiled and white washed on the walls and sides, 
in order that the winged, moths, that light upon 
them, may be more clearly seen: put the wool 
on hurdles, which may be supported at a foot above 
the floor, or pavement: have a stick with one end 
terminated by a covered button, like that of a fenc- 
ing foil. When you enter the store, you must 
strike upon the wool and hurdles, in order to make 
the butterflies fly out, which will light upon the wall 
and ceiling, where it will be easy to kill them with 
the stuffed end of the stick. By often repeating this 
search between the end of ADE ‘and the ‘owes of 


a 


ON SHEEP’s Woor. 115. 


October, a great number of winged moths may be 
destroyed: they are prevented from, or not allowed 
to complete the laying of their eggs, and of course 
there are not so many eating moths in the wool. A 
child is capable of taking care of it in this way. 

Q. Are there not several methods of preserving 
wool from moths ? . 

A. It is known, that wool which is kept in its 
' grease is less subject to be spoiled by moths, than 
that which has been scoured or only washed. If 
there be placed in a storehouse of uncleansed wool, 
some poor fleeces which have been cleansed, the 
moth-flies will lay their eggs in these fleeces, in pre-_ 
ference to those which are uncleansed. If these _ 
fleeces are burned before the moths leave them to 
take the form of chrysalis, the caterpillars are destroy- 
ed, and thus prevented from becoming moth-fies, 
which would produce a great number of eggs. 

It is pretended, that the smell of camphire or spirits 
of turpentine will preserve wool from moths. These 
smells may remove them, if they can find other wool ; 
but for the want of it, they will become accustomed ~ 
to the smell of camphire and turpentine. : 

The vapour of sulphur kills winged moths ; but it 
is necessary, that it be concentrated within a small 
space, ‘This cannot be done ina woolstore ; particu- . 
larly as it would give ita bad smell.. The smell of 
camphire is also very disagreeable : it is better to beat 
the wool in the store, and to kill the butterfly moths : 
this is the method with the furriers, who, to preserve 
their furs, beat them, and pursue the butterfly-moths, 
as soon as they observe wey 


116. ON THE FOLDING‘OF SHEEP. 


7 

Q. Can wool be so isi as to give no dread of 
moths 2» 

A. The winged moths cannot penetrate paper ; 
so that wool is secure in a well-enclosed roll or sack 
of paper. But moths pass between the threads of 
_linen, by separating them, and forming a small round 
hole, without cutting it. 


+ Gee 


* CHAPTERUXHE 24 


ON THE FOLDING OF SHEEP, — 


Q. Wuar is the folding of sheep 2 ¥ 


“ __ A. It is that period of time, when sheep are put 


. upon different pieces of land, for the purpose of fer- 


ene tilizing them with the dung and urine of the flock. 


Q. How are sheep folded ? 
A. ‘They are enclosed within a fence, made of hur- 


= 5 dies, which is called a pen, or sheep-fold. This en- 


elosure retains the sheep within a space of ground, 
sei they can fertilize in a given time, and stops 
' «wolves. The shepherd lodges near the fold ina 
~ cabin to guard it: the dog also goes round it, in 
order to drive away the wolves. 

Q. How. ought the hurdles of a = or sheep-fold 
to be made ? 

A. They should be made from foes feet and an 
half to five feet high, ‘and seven, eight, nine, or ten 
feet long, if they should not prove too heavy ; for it is 
proper that the shepherd should)be able to carry them 
easily: they are made from the small branches of the 
hazle tree,* or other light, flexible wood, interwoven 


5 eae 


* Corylus Sylvatica. 


ON THE FOLDING OF SHEEP. 117 


with uprights, a little thicker than the branches : 
hurdles are likewise made of bars, put together, or 
simply nailed upon uprights. In hurdles of hazle 
wood, three openings of six inches square are made 
at the height of four feet, one of them being at 
each end, and one in the middle; those at the ends 
are called votes openings. 

@. How are these hurdles put up to form a fold ? 

A. They are put up one at the end of another in 
four lines, so as to form a square, and they are sup- 
ported by cross pieces, which are bent at one of the 
ends. The hurdles lap alittle upon each other, in 
such a manner that the two openings come to- 
gether, and that the ends of the cross pieces may pass 
through them. ‘lhe cross piece is bored with two 
holes, in which are put two pins, the one behind and 
the other before the upright: the other end of the 
cross piece is then brought down to the earth, and is 
bent and bored with a notch, in which a key is put, 
and driven into the earth witha mallet. Cross piecés 
are not necessary” at the corners of the pen. It is 
sufficient to tie the uprights together with a line at 
the corners, where they touch each other, by passing 
it through the six inch square holes above mentioned. 

Q. What ought to be the size, uot a sheep-pen or 
fold ? TR 

A. The size of the pen or r fold should be in pro- 
portion to the number of sheep, which are intended 
to be put into it ; because it is proper, that ‘a flock 
should spread dung and urine enough to fertilize the 
ground enclesed: each sheep can manure ten feet 


te? 
a 


118 ON THE FOLDING OF SHEEP. 


square: of course, if the hurdles are ten feet long, 
twelve hurdles will be necessary fer a fold of 90 
sheep, 18 for 200, 22 for 300: if the hurdles are 
‘only nine feet long, two hurdles more will be want- 
ing for each of the pens or folds; four hurdles more, 
if only eight feet long; and six more, if their length 
is only seven feet: fora fold or pen for fifty sheep, 
12 hurdles of seven or eight feet, or ten hurdles if 
nine or ten feet long are necessary, &c. . These cal- 
culations cannot be precise; because, there may be 
afew sheep more or less for the number of hurdles. 
When the number cannot be made equal on each of 
the four sides, there should be upon the two opposite 
sides, a hurdle more than upon the two others. 

-Q. How long is it proper for a flock to remain in 
a fold 2 

A. That depends on the length of the nights, and 
on the quality of the grass. When the nights are 
long, and the grasses, which the sheep eat, are very 
succulent and. produce a great deal of dung and 
urine, the half ora third of a night is enough to ma- 
nure the ground of the pen: if it was made. larger, 
the manure would not be equally spread: on this 
account, the shepherd makes a second pen in the 
middle of the night, and sometimes a third. 

Q. When there is but a small number of sheep, 
can they be folded ?'— 

A. There is nothing but the expense of the shep- 
herd to prevent it. The produce of a small flock 
would make it unprofitable: but a number of small 
flocks may be collected, and put under the manage- 


a ONE, 


ON THE FOLDING OF SHEEP. 119 


ment of a shepherd to be folded. There are farmers, 
who for wages will take charge of many small flocks, 
and put them together, for the sake of folding them 
upon their lands: others, each of whom having only 
a small flock, unite them together, and have them 
folded at a common expense upon the lands, which 
belong to each, individually. 

Q. When we have only a small quantity of land, is 
that a proper reason for not folding ? 

A. No, because it only requires the hurdles and 
the shepherd’s cabin to be oftener carted. This cart- 
ing is asmall expense, compared with that of carry- 
ing out the manure, on ground, where sheep are not 
folded. It requires anumber of cart loads of dung 
for an acre of land; and a single load is sufficient to 
transport the hurdles of a pen, and the shepherd’s cab- 
in attached to the tail of the cart. 

Q. In what manner does a shepherd make a pen ? 

A. He places himself at one corner of a field, and 
measures, by paces, the space necessary to place the 
hurdles on two sides of the fold, at the end, and on 
the length of the field, and marks the point, where the 
last hurdle should come, and then measures the other 
two sides of the pen to form a square, making a 
mark at the place, where these other two sides meet, 
and sets the hurdles according to these lines: to 
carry each hurdle, the shepherd passes the end of his 
crook through the middle opening in the hurdle, leans 
his back against it, and raises and carries it, by put- 
‘ting the crook on his shoulder, and holding it fast 
_. with both hands: the hurdles may be also carried by 





Ry al 
aa . ‘> 


120 ON THE FOLDING OF SHEEP. 


passing the right arm through the middle hole, or 


: under the last piece but one of the hurdle bars. After 
‘placing it, he supports it by one of the cross pieces. 


Q How does a shepherd make anew pen, by the 


»_~ side of another ? 


A. One of the sides of the first pen answers for the 
second : after measuring and lining out the hurdles 
on the three other sides of the second pen, he carries 
thither the hurdles of the first: when he has reached 
the end of the field, after having precisely followed it 
through its whole length, he makes a new folding on 
the side of the last, by returning on a new line quite to 
the other end of the field ; and proceeds in this manner, 
until there remains no space, which he has not folded. 

Q. How cana shepherd make a new pen in a dark 
night ? 

A. It is necessary, he should take the precaution to 
measure the new pen in the day time, and to place a 
stake at each corner, with white rags tied to the end. 
of it, thathe may see them in the night, and be di- 
rected in the manner of placing the hurdles of the 


-new pen. This difficulty may be avoided, by mak- 


ing a double sized pen in the day'time, and dividing it 


_ in two, by a partition of hurdles. The shepherd has 


only to change the pen in that case, by driving the 
sheep from the one - to the other., 
Q. In fields’ “having deep furrows; how can the 


_ shepherd range the hurdles upon the sides of the pen, 
_ which cross the furrows ? 


A. He-cannot, if the precaution Has not been taken 
to level the ground with a plough, by cross furrowing 


*€ 


ON THE FOLDING OF SHEEP. 12i 


at such places, where the sides of the pen should be 
placed: in this way a great number of pens could 
be marked out in a single day. 

@. In what manner should a shepherd’s cabin be 
made ? 

A. It should be six feet long, and four feet broad, 
and high, covered with a straw or shingled roof; and 
be placed on four small wheels, and have a door with 
a lock on each side: a matrass should be put into the 
cabin, with sheets and blankets, for the shepherd to lie 
on,and a shelf, on which to put clothes and provisions. 

&. Where ought this cabin to be placed ? 

A. Near the pen, in order that the shepherd may 
see it from his bed by opening either the one or the 
other door. When the new pen is too far off, the 
shepherd draws his cabin nearer, by rolling it himself, 
if the ground is smooth, or by having the assistance 
of another person. 

@. During what length of time do they fold mee 
every night ? 

A. They are turned into the fold at the end of the 
day, or at nine in the evening when the days are long, 
and there is no evening dew; and turned out again 
at nine in the morning, after the air and sun have 
dried the grass, or at eight when there is no dew. 

@. At what hour is it proper to change the pen 
in the night or morning ? 

A. In the season, when the sheep discharge a great 
deal of dung and urine, from eating very succulent 
grass, each folding should continue only four hours : 
thus, if the first folding begins at nine in the evening, 

16 


122 ON THE FOLDING OF SHEEP. 


~ it should terminate at one in the morning ; the second 
_ at five, and the third at nine o’clock : this last folding, 
being in the day time, the wolves are not so much 
to be feared; it is on this account, that the shepherd 
may dispense with making the enclosure: it is sufh- 
cient to place the dogs in a manner, that they may de- 
tain the sheep within the space designed for the third 
pen; this is called blank folding. When the nights 
are long, and the first folding begins at nine in the 
evening, each folding is made to continue so much 
longer. In the seasons, when the grasses have less 
‘sap, and the sheep discharge less dung and urine, the 
shepherd shifts the folding only once ; he endeavours 
- to allow as much for the first as the second folding. 
If they are folded in winter, a single folding can only 
be made once a day, because at this season, the sheep 
discharge but little dung and urine, and the cold does 
not allow the shepherd to change his fold in the night. 
- Q. Can sheep be folded in winter ? 

A. Sheep may be folded in winter, on dry land, so 
long as the shepherd is not incommoded with the 
cold, in sleeping in his cabin: but in winter, when 
the sheep have dry food only, they discharge but 
little dung and urine. 

Q. Can the dogs be sheltered from rain and cold ? 

A. It is necessary to have a little kennel, that the 
shepherd can easily carry. The dog lies in it, on hay. 
It should be placed near the fold,~on the side oppo- 
site to the shepherd’s cabin. The door of the kennel 
should be towards the fold, and to windward, because 
the door of the shepherd’s cabin should be to leeward, 


ON THE FOLDING OF SHEEP: 123 


and sheltered from the wind. To give the dog shel- 
ter, it is proper to put before the entrance of his ken- 
nel a piece of board, as high as the body of the dog, 
when lying down; in raising his head; he will see 
over the board, and will jump upon it, in going in 
and out of his kennel. If you have many dogs, the 
kennel must be proportionably larger. 

@. How are sheep led to pasture, when folded in 
the fields ? 

A. They are driven to pasture, morning and even- 
ing, and put in the shed at mid-day, to keep them 
from the heat of the sun. | 

. How much time is necessary to manure an 
acre of land, of thirty-four square perches ? 

A. That depends on the number of sheep, and on 
the season of folding them. A sheep-caa,manure at. | 
one folding the space of ten square feet. Three | 
hundred sheep will manure three thousand square 
feet in one folding, and thirty thousand in ten; which 
is nearly the space of an acre : when three foldings 
are made in one night, three hundred sheep will, in 
three or four days only, manure an acre of land. Ac- 
cording to the same calculation, two hundred and 
seventy sheep will manure an acre of ground in 
twelve foldings; two hundred sheep in seventeen 
foldings, and an hundred sheep in thirty-two, &c. 

Q. What is the least number of sheep, which can 
be folded ? : 

A. A very few in number may be folded, but 
much time would be required to manure a field; 
and perhaps it might not be worth the trouble : it is 


124 ON “THE FOLDING OF SHEEP. 


proper to have at least fifty or sixty sheep for fold- 
ing; it is, however, when the shepherd is a child 
of the house, and the folding costs nothing more. 
Fifty sheep in a fold manure about five hundred 
square feet ; sixty-five foldings are therefore neces- 
sary for an acre of land: if three foldings are made 
every day, twenty-two days will be required ;_ thirty- 
- two, if only two foldings in a day ; and sixty-five, if 
only one. 

Q. In what manner is it proper to cultivate the 
land for folding ? : 

A. Before the folding takes place, two pploughings 
should be given, in order that the urine may readily 
enter the soil: as soon as the field is manured by 
folding, it should be ploughed, for the purpose of 
mixing the\dung and urine with the earth, before it 
dries, or is evaporated. | 

Q. Cannot the folding be done at other times ? 

A. When’ a field is sown and the grain is up, it is 
said, a. ean fold in dry days, until the wheat 
or barley may be an inch high: it is said also, that 
shéep are beneficial, in treading the dry earth about 
the roots, and in dispersing the worms by their dung. 

Q. How long does the manure from folding last ? 

A. The folding is better for manure than the dung 
of sheep simply: it in fact produces a very visible 
effect for two years, in the produce of wheat for the 
first, and in that of oats for the second year: half a 
folding made on the same land for a third, which is 
- fallow year, will be a good manure enough for other 

years. | i 


ON THE FOLDING OF SHEEP. 125 


&. How is a half folding done ? 

_A. Double space is given to the pen, that i it would 
have had for whole folding: but many farmers omit 
the half folding, which should be done two years after 
the whole folding ; because they would not have sheep 
enough to twice fold all their land: in this manner, 
they do not draw all the profit from folding, which it 
would give. 

@. Can these farmers find means for feeding sheep 
enough to fold a greater extent of land ? 

A. It would be necessary to sow the lands usually 
put to fallow, instead of leaving them to be run over 
with the weeds, which grow on them. 

@. Would not lands of a middling quality be ex- 
hausted, if they were made to produce every year, 
without giving them rest, after taking off two crops ? 

A. It is said that the grasses, which grow in fal- 
lows, and whose roots run near, and over the surface 
of the ground, hurt the crop of wheat, that is sown in 
the same land, because it has horizontal roots. But 
if the land was sown with good plants, whose roots go 
deep into the soil, such tap rooted plants would not 
hurt the crop of wheat in the following season: on 
the contrary, they would prevent the running plants, 
which come in fallow ground. ° In this manner, a 
crop may be had for the feeding of sheep. | 

Q. What are the tap rooted plants, which might 
be produced on fallows, without hurting the wheat 
harvest of the year following ? 

A. Peas, beans, haricot beans, potatoes, turnips, 
trefoil, &c. 


126 ON THE FOLDING OF SHEEP. 


@. Can one become acquainted with the lands, 
which would produce every year without fallowing, 
and know how much folding would be necessary 
sufficiently to manure them ? 

A. The guide of experience alone is secure : it is 
proper to make experiments upon a small piece of 

ground. Each farmer might hope to find, almost 

‘without expense, a better method of managing his 
land, than is practised in the neighbourhood: soils 
are very different from one another, and each requires 
a particular culture: this object is of sufficient im- 
portance to claim the attention of farmers, ahd men of 
landed property. 

Q. Is folding good for pasture land ? — 

A. Excellent ;\ but it would be hurtful to sheep 
on wet soils: nt is run on dry pastures, and 
they render them fruitful. By this means abundant 
crops of hay may be had on hilly land, when, without 
folding, there would not be grass enough for mowing. 

_ Q. What proof is there of this effect from folding ? 

A. Artificial /grasses have been produced in the 
department of Cote d’or, near the town of Montbard, 
upon hilly land, where without folding there would 
not’ have been grass enough to mow. In fact, there 
was none in some small places, which had remained 
without being folded. ‘These pastures have produc- 
ed as much hay, and sometimes more, than a natural 
meadow at the bottom of the hilly ground, on the 
banks of the river Brenne. 

Q. How should the meadows be folded ? 

A. They cannot be too much folded: the longer’ 


ON REMEDIES. 127 


the folding is continued on them, the more they will 
produce. In dry weather the sheep may be left two or 
three nights in the same place ; but in wet weather, 
you must change it every day, because the dung of 
the evening, not being dried, would dirty the sheep. 

~Q. On what sort of artificial meadows has the 
folding been tried ? 

A. Ithas produced an excellent effect upon mead- 
ows of lucern, trefoil, quitch grass, ray grass, sheep 
grass,* burnet and woad; but in saintfoin meadows 
this plant has been known to die in places where 
sheep had been folded: on the contrary, quitch, 
grass and ray grass, on which they had been folded 
in the month of October or November, became vig- 
orous enough to preserve their verdure during win- 
ter ; notwithstanding the plants of the same kind, on 
which sheep had not been folded, grew yellow from 
the frost. 


= + ne 


CHAPTER XIV. 


ON THE REMEDIES, WHICH ARE MOST NECESSARY FOR 
SHEEP. 


Q. Wuar are the most necessary remedies for 
them ? 

A. Bleeding, and an ointment for the itch or scab. 

Q. On what part of the body are sheep bled ? 

A. Sheep are bled on the forehead, above and 


* Festuca ovina, L. 


128 ON REMEDIES. 


under the eyes, in the ear, neck, fore leg, above the 
ham, and in the feet. 

Q. Has a better method of bheuding sheep been 
“discovered ? 

44. Another method of bleeding, which appears to 
be best, has been obtained : it is easier and less liable 
to inconvenience. 

Q. On what part of the body is this new method 
of bleeding performed ? 

A. This bleeding is made at the under part of the 
sheep’s jaw, at the root of the fourth grinder, which 
is the thickest of all the teeth, as is also the root: the 
space, which it occupies, is marked upon the outer 
surface of the bone of the upper jaw, by a small 
swelling sufficiently projecting to be very sensibly 
felt by the finger, when you touch the skin of the 
cheek. ‘This tubercle is a very certain index to find 
the angular vein, which passes under it: this vein 
extends from the lower edge of the under jaw, near 
its angle, quite under the tubercle, which is at the 
root of the fourth grinder; a little further on, the 
vein is bent back, and continued quite to the hollow 
of the eye brow. 

Q. In what manner are sheep bled in the cheek ? 

- A. To bleed in the cheek, the shepherd begins by 
putting an open lancet between his teeth; he then 
places,the sheep between his legs, and ties him to 
restrain him, keeping his left knee a little forward of 
the right ; and passing the left hand under the head 
of the animal, while he grasps the under jaw, in such 
a manner, that his fingers placed upon the right 


# 


4 ‘ + . : # 
ON REMEDIES. 129 


branch of the under jaw, near its hinder end, com- 
presses and enlarges the angular vein, which passes 
in this place; the shepherd then takes hold of the 
right cheek of the sheep with the other hand, nearly 
at an equal distance between the eye and the mouth ; 

and the tubercle or swelling will be there found to 
direct him; and he will perceive the angular vein 
enlarged under it. He then takes the lancet from 
his mouth with his right hand, and makes the orifice 
for bleeding from the bottom upwards, half a finger’s 
breadth under the middle of the swelling, which will 
serve to guide him: it may be said without exagger- 
ation, that in this manner, a blind man might be able 
to bleed a sheep, because he would feel with his fin- 


gers the tubercle, which would direct him in ee 


the incision. 


Q. Is the bidedihig in the cheek safe and advanta- 


‘geous ? 

Q..The bleeding in the cheek is both easy atid 
safe; as the situation of the vein cannot be mistaken, 
and it is large enough to afford a sufficient quantity 
of blood; because it receives it from several other 
veins; and the blood is retained there by the hand 
of the shepherd, which has the effect of a ligature, at 
the angle of the jaw. There is no risk of opening 


the artery ; it is some distance between that and the — 


vein at, the place of bleeding. A man may go through 
this operation without assistance. , 
A. What is the disease in sheep which requires 
immediate bleeding. 
A. At is the disease, which is called li heat, the 
17 | 


4 


13Q ON REMEDIES. 


apoplexy, trembling, too much blood, &c.: sheep re- 
sist all intemperature of the air in our climate, except 
the extreme heat of the sun: The sheep, which are 
the strongest, fullest of blood, and best fed, are most 
liable to disease from heat. 

@. What are the signs of disease from heat ? 

A. Such, as are attacked with it, keep their mouth 
open to breathe ; they foam at the mouth, discharge 
blood at the nose, rattle in the throat, and beat at the 
flank ; the ball of the eye becomes red; the animal 
keeps his head down, trembles, and presently falls 
dead. After death, the eyes, the lower part of the 
cheek, the nether jaw, the throat, the neck, the in- 
side of the mouth and nose, have a red and _ blackish 
colour mixed : on opening the animal, the blood ves- 
sels are found swollen in all parts, and in the head. 

@. What inferences ought to be drawn from these 
signs ? | 

A. These signs evidently point to bleeding, which 
causes the evil to subside very readily, if done sea- 
sonably. ‘This remedy is one of the most necessary 
for a flock in warm climates, in temperate climates 
like ours, and even in cold climates, when the sun 
has great power in summer. 

Q. What are the symptoms, which should lead to 
the suspicion, that sheep have the scab or itch ? 

A. The shepherd should be attentive to discover 
the first indications of the itch ; should carefully ob- 
serve his flock, to see if some sheep do not scratch 
themselves with their feet or teeth, or rub themselves 
against the racks, trees, or walls, &c. ; or if the wool 


ON REMEDIES. 131 


is not dirted in parts of the body, that the animal can 
reach with his feets or if there are not some flakes of 
wool deranged by being pulled by the teeth, or rub- 
bed by the feet: these signs indicate itching from 
lice, itch, or'some other disease. It is proper, that 
the shepherd should examine the sheep by separating 
the flakes of wool in suspicious parts, to observe ‘ 
the symptoms of the itch are real. 

Q. What are the indications of the itch ? 

A. They consist in the skin being harder in the 
itchy than in the other parts: hard kernels are felt, and 
the skin is covered with white scales, scabs, or small 
pimples, which are at first red and inflamed, and af- 
terwards become white or green—all these symp- 
toms cause itching: but there is another species of 
itch or humours, which does not excite to rubbing: 
it speedily spreads under the wool, and instead of 
making it fall off, discolours and felts it, as though it 
had been fulled. 

Q. What is the best ointment for the cure of the: 
itch ? 

A. It is that, which is the least costly, and which 
imparts no bad quality to the wool, or to the flesh of 
the animal : a mixture of tallow or, grease with oil of 
_ turpentine answers these purposes: the grease is to 
be preferred to tallow in winter, because it spreads 
easier upon the skin ; but the tallow is best in sum- 
mer, as it does not melt so soon as grease in the heat. 
It is very easy to make this compound, the particu- 
lars of which are given in the twelfth chapter, page 
108. This ointment costs but little, produces no bad 


132 ON REMEDIES. 


effect upon the wool, softens the skin when hardened 
by the itch, and cures it. The application will be 
made more powerful by increasing the oil of tur- 
pentine. a 

Q. How is the ointment used for the itch ? 

_ A. It is easy to use it without cutting off the wool 
from the diseased part: it is sufficient.to separate 
the flakes so as to expose the itchy part, when the 
shepherd rubs the skin with his scratcher, only to 
remove the scabs, and then applies and spreads the 
ointment with his finger. : 

Q. Is the scratcher sufficient for rubbing the skin 
diseased with in the itch ? 

A. There is a bad custom of rubbing the skin of 
scabby sheep with a tesson, or a piece of brick, until 
it bleeds ; a small wound is thereby made, which in- 
creases the’ evil : our author furnished his shepherd 
with a single instrument, which he says is sufficient 
for all the operations to be performed on sheep : it is 
a sort of incision knife, made sharp on each side of 
the point, and answers for a lancet; while at the end 
of the handle is placed a blade of pane or ivory, to be 
used for a scratcher. 

Q. Under what circumstances, is it proper to use 

the ointment for the itch ? | 
«A. When some signs of the itch appear, it is prop- 
er to use the ointment, immediately : however, if it is 
supposed that the disease proceeds from fatigue, or 
from the heat of stables, from the scarcity or bad qual- 
ity of food, it is necessary to remove the cause of the 
evil, because it would be adverse to the eflect of the 


+ 


ON REMEDIES. 133 


application. If the itch is caused by another disease, 
both ought to be cured atthe same time. When the 
itch i is not inveterate nor ulcerated, it may be cured 
by external application, without inward medicine.* 


* The true and almost only causes of itch in sheep are the ignorance, 
laziness, and want of care in shépherds, and the carelessness and parsi- 


mony of proprietors. A flock well taken care of, well fed and attended” 


to, is never attacked with this disease : if some animals show symptoms 
of it, an intelligent shepherd and careful proprietor will promptly apply 
the remedies, before the disease should spread in the flock. 


= = 





TABLE 


OF GENERAL CONTENTS. 


Page 


Preface, - - we Fe ED . 3 ‘ 3 

| CHAPTER I. 

On the Qualifications of a Shepherd, - - = 7 
CHAPTER II. 

Of Dogs and Wolves, - - - - - 10 


| CHAPTER III. 
Of the Lodging, Litter, and Dung of Sheep, “ 18 


CHAPTER IV. 


On the Knowledge and Choice of Sheep, . - - 28 
CHAPTER V. 
Concerning the Management of Sheep in Pastures, 36 


\ CHAPTER VI. 


On the different things which may be used for the Feed- 
ing of Sheep, - - - - - - 46 


CHAPTER VII. 


On the Manner of breeding Sheep, and giving them — 
Water and Salt, - ~ : - ‘ = 57 


1* 


gist CONTENTS. 
CHAPTER VIII. 
On the Breeding of Sheep, and their Improvement, 65 


CHAPTER IX. 


Concerning Ewes, -  - - - - - 78 


CHAPTER X. . 


Concerning Lambs, - - - ~ - one es 


CHAPTER XI. 


Concerning Wethers, - - ~ ~ - 95 


CHAPTER XIi.. 
On Sheep’s Wool, sper D ~ sgh - 103 


CHAPTER XIII. 
On the Folding of Sheep, - - - - «'s) '£16 


CHAPTER XIV. 


On the Remedies which are most necessary for Sheep, 127 


EXPLANATION 


OF THE 


SEVERAL PLATES. 


PLATE I. 


‘Tue annexed plate represents one of the most 
perfect Merino Rams which has been sent out of 
Spain. He was supposed to combine all the superior 
qualities of the Spanish sheep, with the fine square 
form of the English. * 


* From the specimens which have been imported into the 
United States, the Merino breed is rather smaller than that of ; 
New-England, not so well shaped, having a larger head, a longer 
neck and legs, and smaller, body, flat-sided, narrow across the 
hips, and an unnatural throatiness, descending from the chin to 
the breast bone, not unlike the loose, flacid dewlap of an ox: the 
rams have commonly large spiral horns, full-and lively eyes, 
and an intelligent countenance ; a soft, loose and thin skin of a 
bright carnation, or vivid flesh colour, covered with a thick, close 
pile of wool greatly superior in fineness and flexibility to that of 
any other sheep. On the outside, and for half an inch within, the 
wool has a dark greasy appearance, owing to the quantity of yolk 
or grease it contains, which absorbs the dirt of the soil on which 
the sheep are kept, whilst on the inside it has a bright white 
colour slightly tinged with yellow. 


18 


1388 PLATE I. 


_ © This animal,” says Dr. Parry, “seems buried in wool, it 
“crests on the forehead almost as low as the eyes and on the 
“ cheeks, covers their bellies, and envelops their hind legs and 
“ sometimes their fore legs down to their very hoofs.” 

The length of the staple or filament, is from two to somewhat 
more than three inches, being much alike on the shoulder 
and on the rump :—the wool of the ram is generally esteemed 
the coarsest and longest, that of the ewe the finest and shortest, 
and that of the wether in both respects, between the two former. 

In proof of this fact it appears by Dr. Parry’s excellent treatise 
on Merino sheep, that “ this breed has been naturalized in Swe- 
“den, Denmark, Prussia, Saxony, Silisia, Hungary, Austria, 
“ Hanover, Holland, England, Bayreuth, Anspatch, Wirtem- 
“burg, Baden, France, Switzerland, Piedmont, the Cape of Good 
“ Hope, and New Holland, comprehending a range of latitude 
« from 59° 20‘ North to 34° South, and includes countries some 
“6 of which are elevated, others low; some dry,-others swampy ; 
*‘ some open, others inclosed and woody ; some rich, others poor ; 
“ some hot, others temperate, and others intensely cold: In one 
“ country this breed is exposed during the whole year to the ex- 
“ ternal air, and to all the vicissitudes of weather, and exercises 
“ itself at will. In another it is constantly housed during the 
“night, and sheltered from every storm, and for six or seven 
_ months never uses its limbs or inhales the open air, but during 

“a part of the middle of every fine day, and even in Spain, many 
“ of the finest of the Merino breed never travel. 
“ The food of this race is as various as its climate and exer- 
“ cise : here it lives the whole year chiefly on natural and fresh 
“grass; there it obtains in winter, the addition of hay : in Spain 
. “ it feeds not only on the fine herbage of the mountains, but on 
% the succulent grass of the richest meadows, and occasionally on 
** the leaves of vines and other trees, and all the variety of plants 
sin the fallow, or stubble fields. In other countries it is vari- 
* ously fed on clover, Lucern,; Sainfoin, Burnet, vetches, succory, 
“ reeds, the leaves of different trees, and the haum of plants, al! 





We 


ceCTEUAREED | 








‘4 
i}. 


y 





Wigh hiss any 


# 


PLATE It. 139 


“ sometimes fresh, at others dried ; the fruit and husk of the 
«“ horse chesnut, bran, potatoes, carrots, beets, beans, grain of all 
“ kinds, and every sort of turnips and cabbages. To these kinds 
« of food some proprietors of flocks add salt water and other me- 
« dicaments ; others use them occasionally, and some entirely 
“ omit them. | ) 

“ Under this diversity of climate, soil, and treatment, than 
“ which the mind can scarcely picture a greater, the Merino race 
“of sheep has been found by experience to thrive and produce 
“‘ wool, which is, in every respect, fully equal to the very best of 
“the native growth of Spain. These facts prove that it is the 
“ peculiarity of breed, which we are to consider as chiefly pro- 
“ ductive of fine wool, in spite of the operation of other causes ; 
“ and that the Merino breed is capable of bearing its transcend- 
“ ent fleece in this* or any other country, in which it can subsist 
“in sound and robust health.” | 

M. de Lasterie observes, that the fine wools of Spain depend 
neither on travelling, nor on the soil, nor the climate, nor the 
pasture, but on other causes, and that it is possible to have in 
France and elsewhere wool of the same quality, as that of Spain ; 
that his travels in the north of Europe have offered facts and ob- 
servations, and prove, that where sheep can be maintained, that 
wool may be raised, which will make clothes as fine, as silky 
_ and supple as those manufactured from Spanish wool. 3 


a } eee 


PLATE II. 


Figures 1, 2,3, 4, exhibits four lambs in different situations 
upon the placenta or after births, A, A, A, A, and represent them 
issuing from the matrix, when the ewes are in labour to cast 
their lambs. a 

, 


* England. 


140 PLATE Ii. 


Figure 1 represents a lamb discharging from the matrix, in re- 

gular position, having the two fore feet underneath, and a little in 
advance of the muzzle, and the ombilical or navel cord B, free. 
_ The lamb, figure 2, has the two fore legs improperly placed, 
the left leg B, being improperly raised and stretched out over the 
head, should be brought down under the muzzle. The right leg 
C, is stretched out behind, and the. shepherd should endeavour to 
draw it forward, in order that the two fore legs should be placed in 
the same situation as those of the lamb, figure 1. 

The lamb, figure 3, presents the crown of the head before, with 
the muzzle C, turned backward, but the muzzle should be placed 
before, in the same situation as the muzzle of the lamb in fig. 1. 

The lamb figure 4, has the right fore leg retained by the ombi- 
lical.or' navel cord, C, which passes before the curve of the joint 
B. The navel string should be broke, and the right leg drawn 
before, and placed by the side of the left leg E, in order that both 
legs may be in the same situation as those of the lamb in figure !. 

Figure 5 represents a cheap covered cot, for the purpose 
of sheltering sheep from rain. 

_ The timber work of this sheep cot, is supported by the posts 
A, B,C, D, E, which are placed upon the stone bases, F,G, H, I, K. 

The posts, A, B,C, D, E, are attached to the beams, L, M, and 
to the plates, N, O, which support the roof, P, Q, R, S. 

- A little shed, T, T, placed on each side of the building enlarges 
its space, without its being necessary to use longer or heavier 
timber. 

The braces, U, U, attached to. the posts and cross pieces, pre- 
yent the work from spreading. 3 

In the middle of the cot'there isa double rack, X,and two 
single ones, Y, Y, on the sides, next to the posts of the little sheds. 

The scale, A, B, will serve to shew the length and thickness of 
the: timber, which should be used in the construction of this 

_ building. | The figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, which divide a fathom in- 
fo six equal parts, contain each one foot.French, and there is 
a mark betweemeach which divides each foot. 








aoe 


oe 


i 
cals tl 


A 











Ee 
Hn i i AM « CI 
Te ay 


Hi 


ies 
x 


cee 
ee (ii ; =) il a 











- = os 


ey tghtmiar Je, 





PLATE IIx. | 141 


By the ihinaieh tite scale haan Ne of the timber 
proper for its construction, may be ascertained. — 
_ It will be seen in the third chapter, (page 21,) 1 that the above 
sheep cot is a —_— for oe ofa middling size, and See 








a shepherd A, (fig. 1.) h 


ginning the operation of 


aes =~] B 


142 PLATE iil: 


A second shepherd G, is placed near the head of the lamb, F; 
and holds with his right hand the two fore legs and the right hind 
leg H. 

A third shepherd, I, holds eiib both barile the. left hind leg of 
the lamb K, and stretches it behind. 3 

-The shepherd A, raises the skin of the left flank with the 
thumb and fore finger of the left hand, and forms the fold L, at 
an equal distance from the highest part ‘of the haunch bone and 
navel M. The shepherd G, lengthens the fold L, with the. left 
hand, quite to the place N, of the false ribs. The shepherd A, 
cuts this fold with the knife B, and makes an incision, which 
ought not to be more than an inch and an half long. 

Figure 2 represents the same lamb in the same situation, and 
retained in the same situation by the shepherds as in figure 1. 

The incision'O, which had been made on this lamb seen at 
A, is placed at an equal distance from the upper part B, of the 
haunchbone, and from the navel C, and on the same line. 

Figure 3 represents the hand, A, of a shepherd introducing 
his finger into the incision B, and searching for the ovaria of the 
lamb, as soon as he has found’ them, he gently draws them out 
with the parts to which they are attatched, the shepherd cuts off 
the ovaria and puts back the other parts into the belly, and in fine 
sews up the incision as mentioned i in the Lith heaggeie. pages 
96, 97. | / 


PLATE IV. 148 


rs 
7 id -. 
. oo fe ae ue) ¥ 
a ‘¥ WO Ea ae 
cy 
. Onan 
° 
ia La i 8 ve \ AN 
; om % : ” 


teyewe Seewees wo 


She a {: 2 





-PLATE.-IV. 


In plate 4, will be seen the Spanish method of sorting 
sheep’s wool; it is taken from M. Delasterie: the parts © 
of the sheep, which furnish the different qualities of wool are 
included within the corresponding lines, and indicated by the 
figures 1, 2, 3; and 4. 

Note. Dr. Parry observes, that it was many years supposed 
that i in a pile of Spanish wool the proportion of the three princi- 
pal parts was refina or superfine, 15 parts, jie, 4, and fercero, 
or third sort, 1. Even in this case, he says, the fleece must 
have been sorted more coarsely, than is expressed in the draw- 
ing. Of late years, he adds, as the wool has ‘risen in price, 
the quantity of the finer sorts has been increased, and their 
quality proportionably deteriorated by the admixture of those of 
a lower value. This, he says, is well known to our (the English} 
manufacturers and venders of superfine cloths. Part of what 


144 PLATE IV. 


should be fine is mixed with the superfine, and the third sort 
probably borrows of the fourth. Hence, he states, of the wool 
imported from Spain into England, in 20 parts of wool, the super- 
fine now forms from 16 to 17, the fine 24 to 34, and the third 
sort from % to 14. It is even probable, that the weight of the 
sheep’s wool is at this time augmented by the addition of parts 
_of that of the lambs, in spite of the prohibition of that practice by 
law, in the provinces of Leon and Segovia. Perhaps too, none 
of the sorts are without a mixture of the wool of those sheep, 
which have died of disease before the time of shearing. 


ho Te, 


a» : 


GENERAL AND ALPHABETICAL 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


A 


ADOPTION of Lambs, by other ‘dims than their mothets, page 86. 

After birth, what it is, its use, and how it is to be extracted, 82. — 

Age of Sheep, how known, 28. 

Air, much of it required, 19. Sheep resist its injurious effects, 22, 
23, 24. When sick should be sheltered from it, 24. 


-Alr, cold, its bad effects on sheep going out of warm stables, 18. 


B 


Barometer, a short description of it, and the manner of using it, 106. 

Bark of Trees given to sheep, and the manner of preparing it, 56. | 

Barley, when green, may prove injurious to sheep, 42. The grain used 
for their food during winter, 50. Meal or flour disgusting to 
sheep, 90. Is good for lambs, 87. And is used for stall-feeding, 101. 

Barley straw, if bearded, may be injurious to sheep, 56, 57. 

Bells, put on the necks of sheep, of what use, 17. 

Barrenness of ewes, to what attributed, 78. 

Beans, small, given to sheep, 51. Bean chaff and straw also given, 52, 56. 

Beets, (white,) or scarcity Poot, given, 49. 

Birch-tree leaves, good for sheep, 53. 

Box, a tin one, for ointment, 10. 

Bleeding, good for sheep having a disease called the heat, or if over- 
heated, 39. For the colick or inflation of the paunch, 43. When 
ewes cannot cast their lambs from too much agitation, 79, 80. One 
of the most necessary remedies, 127. Different methods of, 128. A 
new method preferable to all others, id. In what diseases it is 
most necessary, 129, 130. 

Braces, to support the sheep-fold, 117. 

Brine, the use made of it for sheep, 64. : 

Burnet, stands the winter, 47. Is an artificial grass, 54. Its qualities, 55. 


19 


144 GENERAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
Cc 

Cabbages, fresh food for sheep in winter, 48. In some cases prove inju- 
rious to sheep, 7d. What quantity should be given at a feeding, 58. 
Good to prevent the ill effect of dry fodder, 48. Make ewes increase 
their milk, 84. Different and best kinds, 48. 

Cabbin, for shepherds, its description and situation, 121. 

Cakes, oil, what are the best for sheep, 51. 

Camphire, its smell, a preservative against moths, 115. 

Carrots, preferable to colewort or cabbages, 49, 84. Good for milk, 84. 

Castration of lambs, at what age, 89,98. Different methods of doing 
it, 94. Precautions to be taken, va 95. Accidents which some- 
times happen, 95. 

Chaff of grain, how used, 56, 57. Of peas, beans, vetches, &c. 52. Of 
hay, hempseed, broomseed, acorns, &c. 50. 

Chalk preserves lambs from scouring, 89. 

Cheese, made from ewes’ milk, excellent, 84, 85. 

Choice of rams, 78. Of sheep, 33, 34. 

Cold, how shepherds should treat parts benumbed with it, 9. How 
sheep guard against it, 23,24. Experiments which have been made 
to shew that sheep can resist it, 23 When extreme will destroy 
lambs, 65. Method of restoring lambs benumbed with cold, 88, 89. 

Colewort, fresh food in winter, 48. May prove injurious in some cases, 
id. Oil cakes made from the seed, and their use, 51. 

Colick, produced by wet, 38. Of the paunch, 42. 

Collar, for shepherds’ dogs, how made, 16. 

Colours, in wool,.what are bad, SO. 

Composition of a topical application preferable to any other for the 
scab, 108. 

Consanguinity is not an obstacle to bettering the breed of sheep, 74. 

Coupling, what is the best time for it, 65. Means of rendering it most 
effectual, 65. 

€rook, its form and uses, 9, 44. 

Cuckolds, why lambs are so called, 89. 

Culture of land, folding is proper for it, 119. 


D 


Dejile, how a shepherd makes his flock to pass one, 45. 
Dew of the marning, more injurious to sheep than rain, or the dew of the 
_evening, 33. Why more so than snow, 63. 

Disease, what is done with weak sheep when lodged in the open air, 24. 

Disgust, and want of appetite, the causes of it, and salt its remedy, 64. 

Prink, injurious when taken too often and in too great quantities, 58. 
Sheep can remain a long time without it, 7d. At what time it should 
be given, id. Experiments made thereon; the less sheep drink the ~ 
better, id. A drink to be given to ewes, when too weak to yean 


GENERAL ‘TABLE OF CONTENTS. 145 


their lambs, 75. To be given lambs as a substitute for milk, 87. 
Necessary to sheep and other animals when fatting, 99. ¢ 

Dogs, ace they proper for driving sheep ? 10,11, kc. __ 

Dung, from a home fold, is %. as good as that from a stable? 27. 


E 


Effusion of water, or serum, sheep very liabie to. ie drinking too much 
the cause of it, 62, 63. 

Elder, its leaves very good for susep, 53. 

England. Sheep remain all winter in the open air. Withdrawn from 
snow after being covered with it-for many days, 28, 29. The means 
used there for restoring lambs benumbed with cold, 89. 

_ what should be her shape? 33. Of what.age should ewes be when 
establishing a flock? 35. How many should be put to one ram? 67. 
At what age is it proper to_put them to breeding? The precaution 
in coupling, and the care to be taken after, 65, 66. How long do 
they go, before yeaning? 79. How is it known when they are near 
their time? id. Comforting things to be giyen them while lambing, 
and what should be done after, 82. How she is engaged to nurse 
her lambs, id. How many does she produce ata birth? 83. What 
is to be done when she has morethan one lamb? id. What happens 
from too long nursing? 84, 85. What should be done that a ewe 
should nurse and take care of her lamb? 82. 

Expense, what is necessary for the melioration of a breed of sheep, and 
the means of avoiding it? 77. 

Exposures, what the best for a home fold, 25. 


2 ¥ 


Fall of the wool, does it take place with fine wooled sheep? 104. 

Fallows, what they are, 11. Sheep may be pastured on them without 
dogs, éd. 

Fatting of lambs, 88, 89. Of Papen there are three methods, 98, 99, 100. 

Fecundity of a ram, 67. That of ewes sometimes hurtful, 83. It should 
not be excited in a flock of fine wooled sheep. 

Feeding, fields sown, how a shepherd prevents his flock from damag- 
ing, 45. 

Fenugreek, or Lupins, given to sheep, 51, 52. 

Filaments of wool, their variation in point of coarseness, 30. 

Fire, or Smoke, necessary to keep off wolves, 17, 18. 

Fleece, what is proper to do with it, 104, 108, 109, 111. 

Flies, what sheep do to skreen themselves from them, 59. 

Flock, at what age is it proper to form it? 34. 

Fodder, on what months it should be given, 57. At what time of day, 
id. When to desist from giving it, 60. The best makes sheep lose 
their flesh, 47; 48: means to prevent it, 7d. When necessary to 
give it, zd. 


146 _ GENERAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


Fog, makes sheep loathe their food, 65. 

Fold, what it is, 116. What should be its size, 117. Mannner of mak- 
ing and erecting hurdles, 116. How the fold is made, 119. How 
and when placed by the side of another, 120. 

Fold, domestic, home fold, or sheep cot, what it is, and its size, 25. Situa- 

tion, id Height of the enclosure, éd. 

Folding, what it is, and how done, 116. How longa time ought sheep 
to remain in a fold? 118. Should it continue through the night ? 121. 
At what hours of the night or morning sheuld it be changed? 121. 
If sheep can be folded in winter, 122. What required to manure 
an acre of land by folding, 118 What is the smallest number of 
sheep which can be folded? 118. Manner of cultivating land for 
folding, 124. How long does the manure from folding last? id. 
What is half-folding? 125. Is folding good for pastures? 126. On 
what artificial pastures has folding been tried? 127. What is weak 
folding ? 121, 122. 

food of lambs, how can lambs be fed which have no dams? 86. At what 
age can lambs take other food than milk? 90. 

Food, for shepherds’ dogs, 16. 

Food of sheep, what is best? 46, 47. What green food can be had for 
them in winter? 48. At what time should food be given them? 57. 
‘When snow prevents the flock from going out, what food should be 
given it? 57, 58. How much food is given to sheep at once? 58, 59. 
What are the advantages of fresh food? 58. When fed at the rack, 
what should be first given them? 59. 

Frost, white, injurious when eaten by sheep: what-is its remedy? 68. 

Fright, will make ewes miscarry, 78. 


G 


Garlic, to be given to ewes and rams when they want ardour, 78. 

Gobbes, or balls of wool, what they are, and how they destroy lambs, 88. 

Goats, may be used for nursing lambs, 86. 

Grains, what are the kinds given to sheep in winter? 50 . 

Grasses, their distinction and sons — 54, 55. Their use in artificial 
pastures, 54. 

Grease, in winter, preferable to tallow when used in an ointment for 
the scab, 108. 


H 


Ham, its strength serves to shew good or bad health, 36. 

Hay, what the best and worst kinds, 53. What quantity should be 
given at a feeding? 59, 60. The finest, good food for lambs, 99. 

_ Harricct beans, given to sheep, 51. The straw or chaff made into bun- 
dies for the same purpose, 52. 

‘Hazle tree, its branches good for making hurdles, 117. 


GENERAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. 147 


Heaith of sheep, signs of bad, 33. Of good, 35. 

Heat, more dangerous for sheep than extreme it 38. The dangerous 
practice of sheep to avoid the heat of the sun, 39. A disease, and 
bleeding its remedy, 39. 

Height of sheep, how measured, 29. What preferred, 34. What should 
be done to increase it, 68. 

Hemp-seed, given to sheep in winter ; its effects, 50. Cakes made of i it, 
and their bad effect, 51. 

Herbage, what is best for the fatting of sheep? 90. Of trees, good, 100. 

Horns, sheep without them preferred, 66, 67. 

Horse-Chestnuts, sheep may be fed with them, 56. 

Hove, a disease of sheep ; plants which occasion it, 55, 99. 

Hunger, most of the lambs which die are destroyed by it, 87, 88. 

Hurdles, the manner of making them, 116. Of erecting them, 117. 


I 


Inclosure, the height a fold should have, 25. 

Insects, which spoil sheep’s wool, 112. The method of guarding in 
some measure against them, 114, 115. 

Instruments of Musick, proper for a shepherd, 46. Sheep pleased with 
musick, id, 

Instruments, surgical, description, 10. 

Ivy, ground, increases milk in ewes, 84. 


J 
Jarre, what it is, 32. 


Journeying of sheep, at what age and season is it proper? 76. How 
managed when journeying, id. 


K 


Kennel, its description and use, 122, 123. 
Knife, a shepherd’s, its form, 10. 
. L 3 ¥ 
Lamb, what should be its situation in the belly of the mother? 80. 
What are the bad situations and the means of remedying them? 81. 
What is to be done to make a ewe nurse its lamb? 82. How many 
Jambs may a ewe cast at a birth? 83. What is to be done with a 
lamb just dropt? 85. When the ewe has not sufficient milk ? 83, 86. 
How can the milk of a ewe be increased? 84. What are the means 
of making a ewe own a Jamb not her. own? 86, How a lamb may 
he fed by hand, 86,87. What a shepherd should do when a lamb is 
dull, feeble, and thin, 87. Proof that most lambs die of hun- 
ger, 87,88. Method of restoring lambs benumbed with cold, 88, 89. 
What is te be done with those, which come late, 89. How to fat 


148 GENERAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


lambs, id. At what age lambs take other food than milk, 90. At 
what age good to eat, 91. What precautions do they require before 
weaning? id. At what time should they be weaned? id. It is 
proper to cut off their tails, 92. How done, 93. If it is proper to 
shear lambs, 107. Experiments on this subject, 107, 108. 

Lancet, necessary for a shepherd, 10. 

Leaves, what are the best for sheep? 52,53. The manner of collecting 
and preserving them, 53. a 

Lentils, given to sheep, 51, 52, 56. 

_ Linseed cakes, food for sheep, 51. 

Linseed straw, may be given, but it is the worst kind, 57. 

Litter, should the sheep yard be always covered with it? 27. Given 
to lambs when fatting, 89. 

Locks of wool, what are their different lengths? 30. 

Lodging, for sheep, what kind is to be preferred? 18, &c. 

Looseness, or scouring, how cured, 63. 

Lucern, may in some cases be injurious to sheep, 42. Cultivated as an 
artificial grass, 54. What are its properties? 55. Good for fatting 
sheep, id. 

Lupines, or Fenugrec, given to sheep, 51. How prepared, 52. 


M 


~ 


_ Manuring, or dressing of land, by folding, 124. 

Marsh, rushes growing thereon make bad hay for sheep, 53. 

Mastif’s, a good breed of dogs to defend sheep against wolves, 16. _ 

Maturity of sheep’s wool, how known, 103. 

Meadow, the hay of salt meadow best for sheep, 53. That of dry pas- 
tures very good, 53. Of low marshy ground the worst, éd. 

Means, of knowing the ages of sheep, 28. Of preventing the bad effects 
of dry food, 46. Of restoring lambs benumbed with cold, 88. Of 
knowing good milk, 86. 

Melting of the fat, or molten grease, a disease of sheep, 56. 

Migration of sheep, means of destroying the scab, 36. 

Milk, how it is known if a ewe’s be good, 86. How to be increased in 
ewes, 83, 84 At what times ewes can be milked, 84. What ewes 

- ean be milked with advantage, 85. 

Miscarriages, in ewes, to what causes attributed, 11, 77, 78, 79. 

Moisture, moist, wet soils i injur ious to sheep, 38. 

Moths, not worms, and in what they differ; their description; the 
damage they do; their transformation, aowy and means of guard- 
ing it, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116. 

Musick, sheep pleased with it; the instruments proper for a shepherd,46. 

Mustard, although good for sheep may prove injurious to them, 42. 

Muzzle, to prevent lambs from sucking, 92. : 


GENERAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. 149 


N 


Navel stetag,. when the shepherd should break it, me 
Nut, or walnut cakes, given to sheep, 51. 


O 


Oak nuts or acorns, serve for feeding sheep, 50, 51. . Also, its leaves 
and branches, 52, 53. 

Oats, excellent for sheep in winter, 56. Prevent sheep ining their 
flesh in winter, 59. Good to increase milk in ewes, 83, 84. Good 
for lambs when ground, 90. The best grain for stall feeding lambs. 

Oat-chaff, good for sheep, 52. 

Oat straw, the best of any other, 56. 

Oil cakes, made from turnips, hemp-seed, &e. are good for sheep, 100. 

Oil of turpentine, its use in curing the scab, 108, 131. 

Ointment, for the scab, shepherds should always have it, 10. The man- 
ner of making it, 108. Proper for sheep after shearing, 108. Best 
for the scab, 131. The manner of using it, and the circumstances 
when it is necessary, 132. 

Onions, should be given to ewes and rams not sufficiently ardent, 78. 

P 

Parsnips, preferable to cabbages for feeding sheep, 42. Increase milk 
in ewes, 84, 

Pasturing, rules to be followed concerning it, 36. On what depends 
the goodness, 47. Can it be had in winter after frost? id. How 
can the want of grass be supplied? 47,48, &c. A change of it good 
for nursing ewes, 84. Wet pastures good to fatten sheep intended 
to be killed, 99, 100. Method of obtaining the greatest profit ai 
pasturing in the fatting of sheep, 97, 98. 

Peas, may be given to sheep, 51. Should be made into bundles, and 
the straw and leaves given to them, 52. Boiled, increase milk in 
ewes, 80. Blue, very good for feeding lambs, 90. Their use in 
stall-feeding, 101. Pods of peas, beans, &c. may be given them, 
53, 56. | “uy 

Pine treee, sheep will eat the bark, 53. 

Poplar, its leaves good for sheep, 56. The bark also given them, ¢d. 

Plants, do sheep eat such as are hurtful to them? 42. What are the 
plants, which, although nutricious, may prove hurtful to sheep, id. 
How this disease is prevented, 43, 44. 

Poppy, may do injury to sheep, 42. 

Potatoes, may be given sheep in winter, 49. 

Precautions, to be taken against wolves, 17. In coupling of ewes, 93. 
Before and after castration, 94. After shearing, 108. 

Preservatives, pretended against moths, 114, 115, 116. 

Proportions of body, for a good ram, and for a good ewe, 33. 


150 GENERAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


Provender, to be given, when a ewe refuses the ram, 78. When the 
ram wants ardour, id. And when a ewe is unable to cast her lamb 
through weakness, 79. 


Q 


Qualities (different) of wool, in the same fleece, 111. 

Quantity, of food to be given to sheep at a feeding, 61—64. Of cabbage 
leaves, 58. Ofstraw, 59. Ofhay, 60. Of grass,61. Of drink, id. 
Of salt, 63, 64. Of food at stall-feeding, 100. 


R 


Ram, what are the proportions of body which should distinguish him? 
33. At whattime should he be put to the ewes? 65. Are those 
which have no horns to be preferred? 66,67. At what age should 
he be put with the flock, and to what time can he produce good 
lambs? 34,35. How many ewes can he serve in a season? 67. Good 
rams more necessary than good ewes to improve a flock, 73. The 
choice to be made of rams to improve a breed, 74. The method of 
leaving them with the flock for the whole year improper, 77. 

Races, or breeds, (different) of sheep, 29. Are the largest best? 34. 

Rack, for sheep, its description, 21. Situation in the home fold, 23. 
To be placed very low, 88. Means to prevent the want of it, when 
sheep are on a journey, 76, 77. 

Radishes, given to sheep in winter, 49. Good for milk, 84. 

Rain, less injurious to sheep than dew, 38. Cold rains to be feared after 
shearing, 108. 

Ray-grass, or melilot, lambs fed on it when weaned, 91. Used for arti- 
ficial pastures, 54 Its qualities, 55. 

Reeds, the worst kind of hay for sheep, 53. 

Renewal and fall of sheep’s wool, 104. 

Roots, what kinds can be given to sheep in winter? 49. 

Rot or scab, a disease in sheep; wet may produce.it, 38,41. Too 
much drink one of the causes of it, 58. Fat sheep liable to it, 102. 
Migration may cure it, 36. 

Rules, to be observed in driving a flock, 44, &c. 

Rumination or chewing the cud, 46. How is it known when a sheep is 
so doing ? 41. : 

Rye, green field rye may sometimes prove. injurious to sheep, 42. 


~s 


s 


' Saintfoin, artificial meadow made with it, 54. Its qualities, $5. It may 
be given to lambs, 90. Is the best grass for fatting sheep, 99. 

Salsifis, or goats beard, proper for sheep, 49. Makes ewes increase 
their milk, 84. 


4 


GENERAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. 151 


“Sait, is it proper to give to sheep, 64. The effect it produces, id. In 

what quantity, at what time, and in what manner to be given, id. 

Put en the back of lambs, in some cases, to make the ewes lick 

| them, 82. 

‘Samples, necessary to know the different realities of wool, 31. 

“Satchel, or scrip, necessary for a shepherd, and its use, 10. 

‘Scouring of sheep, a disease ; dew and white frost produce it, 63, 99. 

Means of preventing it in lambs, 89. Pernicious in fatting, 99. 

‘Scouring of wool, how it is done, 110. 

‘Scab, a disease in sheep, its symptoms, 130,131. There is a scab, 
which does not itch, 131. What is the best application for it? id. 
How is it used? 132. 

Scratcher, its form, 10. 

‘Season, whertfodder is given, and when discontinued, 57, 60. 

Seeds what are those used for sheep in winter, 50. 

‘Sheds, what they are, and if they make good lodging for sheep, 19, 20. 

; leases in England, remain the whole winter in the open field, 23. What 
are the principal points which distinguish them? 28. How is their 
age known? id. Their different sizes, 29. Different breeds, id. 
Means of enlarging them, 68. Different qualities of their wool, 31. 

Signs of their ill health, 33. Description and cure of their common 

diseases, 127—-133. How to choose sheep to have them good, 33. 

Are the largest to be preferred ? 84. At what age to form a flock, id. 

The attention to be paid in shifting sheep from one country to an- 

) other, 36. Rules to be observed in pasturing them, 7d. In coupling 
them, 65. Means of drawing good profit from them, zd. At what 
age and season to journey, 76. Precautions to be taken in bringing 
them to a new country, 77. At what time to shear, 103. How to 
be washed before shearing, 105. The care to be taken of them 
after shearing, 108, 109. Folding, 116. How much land each 
sheep can manure at a folding, 123. On chewing the cud, 40. 

' Sheep of Spain produce lambs at a great age, 68. 

Sheep fescue grass, (coquiole) 54. Its qualities, 55. Can be used for 
the fatting of wethers, 100. 

‘Shepherd, at what age to be chosen, 7. His livelihood, 7,8. His quali- 
fications, 8. His necessaries, 8,9. How he ought to conduct his 
flock, 36. German shepherds wean their lambs at six weeks, 84. 

Shelter, what is the best, 29. 

Skirret, its root good for sheep in winter, 49. 

Snow, prevents'the gangrene in parts frost bitten, 9. How do sheep 
get rid of it? 22. Can they be buried init for a length of time 
without suffering, 22, 23, 24. Is it hurtful to sheep to eat 2. 63. 
Experiments thereon, éd. 

Second wool, in fineness, the part of the body from which it is taken, 111. 


msg 





152 GENERAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. | 

Signs, by which good” sheep are known, 33. When fat, 102. When i in| 

- bad health, 33. When in good, 35. When a ewe is about to cast 
her lamb, 79. 

Situation of the lamb in the belly of the mother, 80, 81. What are bad. 
situations, and the manner of changing them? 81. 

Shearing, at what time it should be done, 103. The best method, 106. 
If proper to shear name, 107. Leeeepent of sheep after shearing, 
108. 

Soil, what most proper for sheep, 97. 

Sorting of wool, the Spaniards sort the fleece into four parts, 111. 

Spirits of Turpentine, is its smell a preservative against moths? 115. 

Stable, when a close one is the worst lodging for sheep, 18. When 
open, what its good and bad effects, 19. : 

Straw, threshed, given to sheep, 56. What are the best kinds, id. 
What quantity should be given at a feeding? 59. To what time is 
this food sufficient ? 60 If twice threshed it may be given to lambs, 
90. Oat straw is the best for lambs, id. Barley straw sometimes 
sticks to the tongue and always to the wool. 

Suckling, what is proper to be done to make a ewe nurse its lamb, 82. 
83. Nursing too long injurious, 84. 

Sulphur, its smoke destroys moths, 119. It should not be used in store. 
houses of wool, id. 

Sun, how sheep defend themselves against its ardour, 39. Its great 

' heat injurious after shearing, 108. 


¢ 


Tail, is it proper to cut off the tail of lambs ? 92. The inconvenience of 
- leaving it its whole length, id. How it should be cut, 93. 

Tallow, used in an ointment for the scab, and is preferable to grease 
in summer. 

Teeth, their different renewals, forms, decay, and fall, indices of the 
age of sheep, 28. 

Third quality of woel, how designated, 111. 

Thirst, too great, a sign of diseased sheep, 61, 62. 

Thunder, produces miscarriage, 78. 

Times, for coupling, 65. For giving sheep fodder, 57. For discontinu- 
ing it,60. For giving them drink, 61,62. For saben thems salt, 63, 
64. For driving them to pasture, 39, 40. 

Timothy or herd’s grass, used for fatting sheep, 100. 

Tippler, a small tube for the feeding of lambs, 86, 87. 

Topinambours, a species of potatoes used for feeding sheep in winter, 49. 

Trefoil, artificial _pastures made of it, 54. Its qualities, 55. May be 
given to lambs, 90. Serves for ‘fatting sheep, 100.. May give them 
the hove, 42. Good for weaning lambs, 90. 


aa 


GENERAL TABLE. OF CONTENTS. ASB 


Trees, sheep can be made to eat the bark and leaves, 56. 

Treuzhs, how made and placed, 26, 27. 

Turnips, a pretty good food for sheep, 49. Favourable to milk in ewes, 
84. Serve for stall feeding, and how used, 101. Oil cakes made 
with the seed, given to sheep, 100. | 

Twisting the bag or cord of rams, what it is, 96. 

Twitchgrass, (fromental,) is ranked among” the artificial grass; its 
qualities, 54. And serves for the fatting of sheep, 100. 


U 
Urine, necessary for the scouring of wool, 110. 

Vv 
Vegetables, what are those given to sheep? 51, 52. 
Vein, the angular, the most convenient for bleeding, 128. 
Veins, shew the good or bad health of sheep, 35, 36. 
Vertigo, in sheep, 38. 


Vetches, given to sheep,'51. What is done with the straw after thresh- 
ing? 52, 56. 


WwW 


Washing of wool on the sheep’s back, how done, 105. Precautions neces- 
sary, id. After shearing, 109. At what time and in what manner 
done, 109, 110. 

Water, what good and bad for sheep, 61. What quantity should a. 
sheep drink, and at what time should it be given? 61, 62. 

Weaning of lambs, when and how should it be done? 90, 91, 92. 

Wethers, why made, 93, 94, &e. What are the signs of good? 35. At 
what age put with the flock, 35. What soil best agrees with them, 
97. When fat in the flock, 98. Different methods of fatting them, 
id. What are the signs of being fat? 102. Do they live long? id. 
At what age is it proper to fat them? 102, 103. 

Wethers, female, why so called, and at what age made, 95. How done, 97. 

Wheat, when green, may be injurious to sheep, 42. Bundles of thresh- 
ed straw very good for sheep, 52. Its straw not so good as rye. 
straw, 56. Wheat bran good in winter, 50. Mixed with oatmeal, 
good for lambs, 90. Good for stall feeding, 101. 

Whip, necessary for a shepherd, 9, 44. 

Wind, when at north-east, should be sheltered within the home fold, 23. 

Willow tree, the sheep eat its leaves, 53. } 

Winter, sheep may be abroad in the open air, 22. Experiments to 
prove the fact, 23, 24. 

Woad, siands the frost and winter; pasture may be made of it, 47. 


154 GENERAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


Wool, secures sheep against injury from the air, 22. How it is distin- 
guished, 30, 31. Mother wool, what it is, 111. 

Wolves, what precautions should be taken against them, 18. What the 
shepherds should do when one approaches his flock, id. Provoke 
miscarriages by frightening the ewes, 78. 

Worms, in wool, are no other than moths. See Moth. 


\ ee 


Foke elm, sheep eat its leaves, 53. 
Yolk, or the grease in wool, what it is, 22. Its use, 22, 109. 





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